Managerial Skills Essay

In order for managers to be effective, they must have a clear understanding of whether different skills are important in their managerial role. In addition, managers must have a mutual understanding of the skills and responsibilities necessary for other managers across similar and different organizational levels and functions ([10] Kraut et al. , 1989). If these skills and responsibilities are not clearly understood, managers will neither be able to coordinate work effectively, communicate expectations, deliver feedback, nor be prepared for job transitions or other training and career development activities ([10] Kraut et al. , 1989). In short, understanding whether certain managerial skills are important to a manager’s job is essential. A number of researchers have investigated the roles, tasks, or activities of managers (e.g. [18] Mintzberg, 1973; [13] Luthans, 1988; [10] Kraut et al. , 1989). However, these studies are over a decade old, some more than two or three decades, and have not specifically examined skills. The world of work has changed since these studies, most notably due to organizational downsizing, technology, and the globalization of the workplace. Skills important to managers in the late 1980s and early 1990s may not be as important today. As times change, researchers should update important findings to determine if those findings are still applicable ([4] Cronbach, 1975), especially when considering that the skills and roles of managers need to be clearly defined and understood to effectively teach, select, develop, and promote these individuals in the workplace. Based on results of a study of more than 14,000 managers over two distinct time periods, this paper will highlight whether the importance of certain managerial skills changed over a 15-year time period, and determine which skills are needed at different organizational levels and across organizational functions from the opinions of managers themselves. Our main research question is, to what extent has the importance of certain managerial skills changed, or remained constant, over time, and whether certain skills are important based on organizational level and function. Studies of managers [18] Mintzberg (1973) provided one of the most influential works on managerial roles. Prior to his research, the roles of managers were understood to be embedded in a rigid functional approach of planning jobs, organizing staff, and leading personnel ([20] Pearson and Chatterjee, 2003). However, Mintzberg observed that managers worked at a much faster pace during which they were required to address a range of issues. The job of the manager required an ability to handle more complex roles than those described by classical management theory. Using a descriptive diary method to observe managers at work, Mintzberg identified ten roles of managerial work, which were divided into three categories: interpersonal roles, informational roles, and decisional roles. Expanding on [18] Mintzberg’s (1973) work, [10] Kraut et al. (1989) investigated the differences between managerial levels in the perception of role importance. They identified seven major factors of management tasks including: managing individual performance; instructing subordinates; planning and allocating resources; coordinating interdependent groups; managing group performance; monitoring the business environment; and representing one’s staff. Their findings also revealed distinct differences in role importance based on the level of the manager. For instance, first-level managers reported that managing individual performance and instructing subordinates were the most important set of activities in their job. However, as managers moved up the management hierarchy to the level of middle manager, the importance of these activities dropped and more focus was placed on tasks related to linking groups. The act of linking groups included planning and resource allocation, managing group performance, and coordinating interdependent groups. Executive managers took an even broader view of their job as evidenced by their high importance ratings related to monitoring the environment including business, economic, and social trends. The only commonality among the different managerial levels was the importance they placed on representing their staff; over 50 per cent of managers at each level rated representing staff of â€Å"utmost† or â€Å"considerable importance.† [13] Luthans’ (1988) research also examined differences between top and middle managers. However the focus was more on the distinction between the activities of an effective manager versus a successful manager. Effective managers were identified by a high level of performance in the unit they are responsible for, whereas successful managers were recognized by their rapid promotions within an organization. The activities that characterize effective managers included spending time on communication and human resource management, which can lead to long-term results. In contrast, successful managers spent more time on networking and aimed for short-term results. In addition to differences between levels, [10] Kraut et al. (1989) also compared managerial activities across the different organizational functions of marketing, manufacturing, and administration. For example, a greater percentage of marketing managers rated monitoring the outside environment more important when compared to other managers. Alternately, fewer marketing managers rated instructing subordinates as important when compared to managers in manufacturing and administration. Managers from all three organizational functions indicated that activities involving coordinating interdependent groups were important. The present study will attempt to expand on similar research such as those previously mentioned. First, this research examines managerial skills, which are much different than managerial roles, activities, or tasks. While past research has determined what roles or activities are important for managers and what tasks managers tend to spend much of their time on, this research attempts to determine what skills are important for managerial jobs. Second, this research will use opinions from practicing managers totaling more than 14,000 from two distinct time periods (1988-1992, and 2004-2006) to capture what skills have been important in the past, and determine whether those skills have changed in importance over time. In addition, this research will examine whether managerial skills are important across different organizational levels and organizational functions in the context of today’s work environment. The changing world of work The aforementioned research regarding the importance of managerial tasks, roles, and activities was conducted in the 1970s and 1980s. There is reason to believe that skills once deemed important for managers may have adjusted in relative importance since much has changed in the world of work since these studies. One can assume that the changes in the world of work may coincide with possible changes in the importance of different managerial skills. Organizations have become flatter and less hierarchical with fewer levels and more responsibilities ([2] Allen et al. , 2001; [16] McKinley et al. , 2000; [17] Miller, 1990). Also, organizational downsizing is commonplace due to the increasing need to reduce costs, to eliminate unnecessary levels of management, and to streamline operations ([5] DeMeuse et al. , 2004). As organizations become less hierarchical, there is reason to believe that the skills managers thought were important in the past may have changed in scope. Organizations also exist in a different environmental context than 15 years ago. Due to improved technology such as e-mail and the internet, changes have occurred in the way managers and co-workers interact. We have seen the emergence of the Internet as a major form of communication and e-commerce as a new source of business. Flexible work patterns and the ability to work in geographically dispersed teams is now a common reality in the workplace ([27] Wallace, 2004). These changes have cultivated the need for better communication, coordination, improved performance, team monitoring, and more interdependence and trust ([22], [21] Salas et al. , 2004, 2005; [28] Zaccaro et al. , 2004). Teams and organizations are increasingly becoming more global or virtual in nature. As a result, an awareness of different cultures and attention to multiculturalism and globalization is vital for the success of many managers. As organizations become more fast-paced and global, there is also speculation that the importance of different skills managers need may have shifted in scope. [7] Kanter (1989) argued that these rapid changes, spurred by technology and competitive pressures, have made traditional forms of organizing work obsolete. Managers may believe certain skills are important in order to be a partner with and empower employees to address business problems on their own and to work in cross-functional teams, which could be different than the skills believed to be important 15 years ago. Managers must fully understand their roles and responsibilities and become adept at a variety of skills to perform their job effectively ([1] Ahearn et al. , 2004; [6] Halbesleben et al. , 2003; [25] Stockdale and Crosby, 2004; [27] Wallace, 2004; [28] Zaccaro et al. , 2004). As previously mentioned, understanding the skills of managers is essential to coordinate work effectively, communicate expectations, deliver feedback, and for training and career development ([10] Kraut et al. , 1989). It is unknown whether the changes over the past 15 years that have occurred in an organizational and global context have also coincided with possible changes in importance of managerial skills over time. A recent case study reexamined [18] Mintzberg’s (1973) work 30 years after the original research by studying the pattern of behavior among four executives in Sweden ([26] Tengblad, 2006). The findings revealed that modern executives are more oriented towards working with subordinates in group-settings and focus more time on giving information rather than performing administrative duties. However, Tengblad noted significant similarities with Mintzberg’s original study, indicating that claims of the emergence of radically different managerial work may be exaggerated. However, due to the small sample size and lack of empirical data in that study, it is important that further work specifically examine the modern skills of managers with a wide range of managers and ample sample size. In other words, are the skills thought to be important to managers 15 years ago still important to managers in today’s work context? The present research will attempt to answer this question and provide relevant present-day information for managers and those who work with, train and develop them, by re-examining the importance of managerial skills across two distinct time periods and across both organizational level and function in the context of today’s work environment. Method Participants This research used data from two waves of managers engaged in a leadership development program from a leadership development provider in order to compare differences in managerial skills over time. The first wave consisted of 7,389 managers from the USA involved in a leadership development process between 1988 and 1992. The second wave consisted of 7,410 managers from the USA who were involved in a leadership development process between 2004 and 2006. Because of data housing and management issues, demographic data could not be given for the first wave of participants. However, aggregate biographical data from the leadership development provider from the time period of 1988 to 1992 revealed that leadership development participants in general were similar in terms of age, gender, race, education, and job status to those of 2004 to 2006. Demographic data in aggregate could be given for the 7,410 participants of the second wave. The average age of the managers in the second wave was 41.73 years old, 59 per cent were male, 86 per cent were white, 69 per cent worked in the private sector and 77 per cent had a minimum of a bachelor’s degree. Managers came from over 60 organizational types (e.g. aerospace and defense, finance, communications, government, education) and over 1,300 companies. In addition, 999 managers (13.5 per cent) were first-level managers (forepersons, crew chiefs, section supervisors), 3,136 (42.3 per cent) were middle-level managers (office managers, professional staff, mid-level administrators), 2,197 (29.6 per cent) were upper-middle managers (department executives, plant managers, senior professional staff), and 1,078 (14.6 per cent) were top or executive level managers (chief executives or operating officers, presidents, vice presidents, directors). Measure Managerial skills . Data determining the importance of managerial skills was collected from SKILLSCOPE ®[1] a 360-degree instrument that assesses job related strengths and weaknesses. The instrument has 98 items that are organized into 15 skill clusters. These clusters represent 15 skills and roles managers need in order to be effective in their job which are part of Mintzberg’s three categories (interpersonal, informational, and decisional) and two other categories (personal resources and effective use of self). The conceptual basis for SKILLSCOPE ® is research which focused on managerial skills, roles and tasks (e.g. [3] Beggs and Doolittle, 1988; [8] Kaplan, 1987; [9] Kotter, 1982; [14] McCall and Kaplan, 1984; [15] McCall et al. , 1979; [18], [19] Mintzberg, 1973, 1990; [23] Sayles, 1979; [24] Stewart, 1976). As part of their leadership development process, managers chose which five of the 15 skill clusters were the most important for their current job. Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] describes each skill cluster. Results A frequency count of the data revealed the skills that are most important for managers in their current job. Result show that both â€Å"Communicating information, ideas† (60.1 per cent of the managers in 1988-1992 and 63 per cent of the managers in 2004-2006) and â€Å"Taking actions, making decisions, following through† (59.7 per cent of the managers in 1988-1992 and 62.9 per cent of the managers in 2004-2006) were the most important skills across all managers. On the other hand, â€Å"Self-management, self-insight, self-development† and â€Å"Openness to influence; flexibility† were the least important for managers in 1988 through 1992 (8.6 per cent and 8.8 per cent respectively as one of the most important skills needed) and managers in 2004 through 2006 (10.9 per cent and 7.2 per cent selected respectively as one of the most important skills needed). Table II [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] shows a comparison between managers from 1988-1992 and managers from 2004-2006. Many of the skills were similar in importance for both waves of managers. However, there were three skill clusters with differences of more than 10 percentage points that should be noted. First, 39.9 per cent of 2004-2006 managers rated â€Å"Relationships† as one of five important skill clusters which was an increase from 29.4 per cent of managers in 1988-1992. Second, 33 per cent of 2004-2006 managers rated â€Å"Administrative/organizational ability† as one of five important skill clusters, a decrease from the 45 per cent of managers was from 1988-1992. Finally, 31.7 per cent of managers from 2004-2006 rated â€Å"Time management† as one of five important skill clusters which was an increase from the 19.7 per cent of managers in 1988-1992. The next set of analyses focused only on the 2004-2006 managers. Examining the results as a whole may mask important findings based on managerial levels. Consequently, we analyzed the importance of managerial skills across the four managerial levels for the present study, similar to [10] Kraut et al. (1989). Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] displays the importance rankings for each skill sorted by managerial level. â€Å"Communicating information, ideas† and â€Å"Taking action, making decisions, following through† were the two most important skills for all managerial levels with the exception of first-level managers. While â€Å"Taking action, making decisions, following through† ranked as the most important for first-level managers, â€Å"Knowledge of job, business† ranked as second-most important, followed by â€Å"Communicating information, ideas†. On the other hand, â€Å"Openness to influence, flexibility† was the least important to managers at each level, again with the exception of first-level managers who believed â€Å"Risk-taking, innovation† was the least important, followed by â€Å"Openness to influence, flexibility†. In general, the importance rankings were similar across managerial levels, though there are some notable exceptions. First, â€Å"Getting information, making sense of it; problem identification† was less important for top/executive-level managers (48 per cent) than for other managerial levels (each over 55 per cent). Second, as managerial level increased, so did the importance of â€Å"Influencing, leadership, and power†, (from 21 per cent of first-level managers to 45 per cent of top/executive level managers), and of â€Å"Risk-taking, innovation† (from 7 per cent of first-level managers to 22 per cent of top/executive level managers). Last, as managerial level increased, the importance of two managerial skills decreased, namely â€Å"Knowledge of job, business† (from 63 per cent of first-level managers to 45 per cent of top/executive-level managers) and â€Å"Time management† (from 42 per cent of first-level managers to 19 per cent of top/executive-level managers). In addition, viewing the results from all managers in aggregate may also conceal important findings based specifically on job function, as managers in different functions may have different managerial challenges ([10] Kraut et al. , 1989). In order to account for this, the present study mirrored the data analysis of the [10] Kraut et al. (1989) study in that the levels of management were equally weighted in each function so that no one managerial level would have statistical influence over the other managerial levels, and managers from marketing (n =282), manufacturing (n =253), and administration (n =489) would be selected. Due to the functional diversity of the sample of the second wave, managers from engineering (n =413), human resources/training (n =345), operations (n =916) and sales (n =518) were also examined. Figure 2 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] provides the rankings for the skills of managers across job function. It is interesting to note that the pattern of skill importance is similar across functions. For instance, â€Å"Communicating information, ideas† was most important for marketing, human resource, and sales managers, while â€Å"Taking action, making decisions, following through† was the most important managerial skill for manufacturing, administration, engineering, and operations. In fact, across the seven managerial functions studied, these two managerial skills were among the top three in importance for each managerial function. On the other hand, â€Å"Openness to influence; flexibility† was the least important to managers across all functions except for managers in human resources, who believed â€Å"Energy, drive, and ambition† was the least important. Some managerial skills were rated similarly in importance across managerial functions. For instance, between 22 per cent and 27 per cent of managers across different functions believed â€Å"Coping with pressure, adversity; integrity† was important. Also, between 8 per cent and 13 per cent of managers thought â€Å"Self-management, self-insight, self-development† was an important skill to have. There was variability among the importance of some skills across managerial function. For example, â€Å"Administrative/organizational ability† was important for less than 25 per cent of managers in marketing, manufacturing, and sales, but was important for 58 per cent of managers in administration. â€Å"Getting information, making sense of it; problem identification† was less important for sales managers (39 per cent) than it was for engineering managers (65 per cent). Regarding â€Å"Managing conflict; negotiation† it is interesting to note that most managers rated it the same in importance (between 27 per cent and 31 per cent) except managers from marketing, where only 17 per cent of managers thought it was important. Managers in manufacturing (25 per cent) and engineering (26 per cent) ranked â€Å"Relationships† less important than human resources (51 per cent) and sales (52 per cent) managers. â€Å"Selecting, developing, accepting people† was important to some managers in manufacturing and sales (both 35 per cent), but was not as important to marketing managers (12 per cent). Discussion In total, 30 years after [18] Mintzberg’s (1973) original study, [26] Tengblad (2006) found that while some things have changed, managerial work has remained the same, despite changes in the world of work. In a similar fashion, the present research attempted to determine whether the importance of skills managers need in their job have shifted over a 15-year time period. Though many have commented on how the world of work has changed over the past 15 years (e.g. [2] Allen et al. , 2001; [5] DeMeuse et al. , 2004; [7] Kanter, 1989; [16] McKinley et al. , 2000; [17] Miller, 1990; [22], [21] Salas et al. , 2004, 2005; [27] Wallace, 2004; [28] Zaccaro et al. , 2004), the data of the present research suggests that despite the changes in the work environment, the importance of certain managerial skills is somewhat similar. For instance, what was believed to be important in 1988-1992 (i.e. â€Å"Communicating information, ideas† and â€Å"Taking action, making decisions, following through†) is still considered important for managers today. In addition, skills that were not thought of as important in 1988-1992 (i.e. â€Å"Self-management, self-insight, self-development† and â€Å"Openness to influence; flexibility†) are still not thought of as important for managers in today’s work context. Despite these apparent similarities, there are some noteworthy differences between what managers thought was important 15 years ago and what managers think is important today. First, â€Å"Relationships† seem to be more important now than for managers 15 years ago. [26] Tengblad (2006) hinted at this with the finding that executives are concentrating more today (than 30 years ago) on working with others in a group setting. The increased importance of this skill cluster coincid ed with the changes in the organizational context that managers today must face. The use of communication technology, such as e-mail, and the existence of geographically dispersed teams require managers to be more deliberate in the effort they devote towards forming and maintaining relationships. The nonverbal cues that aid in face-to-face communication cannot be relied on in virtual relationships. By acknowledging and facing the challenges presented by these new forms of communication, managers can successfully execute their job requirements. In addition, the flattening of organizational hierarchies has forced a higher level of coordination and collaboration between peers. As more and more people work in an environment structured around the work team, the more likely a focus on building relationships will be encouraged. For instance, more time is devoted to interdependence and trust in a team setting ([22], [21] Salas et al. , 2004, 2005; [28] Zaccaro et al. , 2004), where ultimately, building relationships is necessary. [26] Tengblad (2006) found that executives are indeed focusing less time on administrative duties, and [7] Kanter (1989) also revealed that organizing work was becoming obsolete with changes in the environment. In a similar fashion, the present study found that â€Å"Administrative/organizational ability† seems to be less important today than it was 15 years ago. One of the reasons could correspond with the recent trend of the flattening of organizations. Organizations have become more streamlined, and responsibility has become more spread out in the organization. In effect, managers do not have a hierarchical structure to manage. The administrative tasks that were needed in more hierarchical structures 15 years ago are not needed as much in the present work context. The advent of technology has also facilitated many organizational processes that were once paper-based. More and more companies have converted to computer-based processes (i.e. online recruiting and staffing) that have minimized the necessity to focus one’s skill on administrative or organizational duties. â€Å"Time management† appears more important now than it was 15 years ago. The reasons why could coincide with changes in the work context. Technology now enables people from around the world to work in real-time, to contact people instantly, and work more quickly. E-mail has replaced mail and fax. The use of cell phones and electronic devices such as â€Å"blackberries† has also increased. At the same time, employees are focusing on creating balance between their professional lives and their personal lives, attempting to get work out of the way faster. Employees and their managers therefore must focus on time management now more than ever. The differences in importance rankings of managerial skills we observed between managers at different organizational levels confirm previous findings in the literature. [10] Kraut et al. (1989) found that some managerial roles are considered important at each level, but the degree of importance may be contingent on a particular level. In the present study, â€Å"Influencing, leadership, and power† and â€Å"Risk-taking and innovation† showed an increase in importance ranking as managerial level increased. Both of these skills are indicative of senior levels of leadership. As a manager takes on more responsibility, it is critical to the manager’s success that the manager’s focus shifts to meet the new demands of the job. Also important to note, some managerial skills differ in importance depending on managerial function and relevance. For instance, â€Å"Administrative/organizational ability† is more important to managers in administration than it is for any of the other functions because administrative ability is inherent in the administrative function. â€Å"Getting information, making sense of it; problem identification† is more important for engineering managers than it is for any of the other functions because working with information and problem identification is particularly relevant for engineers. â€Å"Communicating information and ideas† and â€Å"Risk-taking, innovation† are more important for managers in marketing than any of the other functions because those with a marketing background must be able to communicate and be innovative. Finally, â€Å"Relationships† is more important for managers in sales and HR than any of the other functions because sales and HR functions are dependent on forming and building good relationships. In effect, some skills are important to different managerial functions because of relevance of the specific organizational function. Practical applications Determining what is important for managers at each level and each function is crucial to coordinating work effectively, communicating expectations, and facilitating training and career development activities ([10] Kraut et al. , 1989). Relying on past (or outdated) information about the importance of certain managerial skills, roles, tasks, or activities could hinder effective work coordination, communication, and effective training and career development. Hence, â€Å"updating† this type of information may help managers in their work and development, even if it is to simply validate or reinforce previous findings. Imagine the challenges managers face if relevant information about the importance of certain skills in their jobs were not correct or outdated. If information from previous research from the 1970s or 1980s is still used for coordinating work activities and it has not been updated, managers may be concentrating on different or unnecessary skills that are no longer relevant. This could greatly impede their work, their advancement, and ultimately, their success. Moreover, managers may not be taught the appropriate skills for the present-day work environment that is needed to succeed if training and development relies on outdated information. For instance, [11] Lipshitz and Nevo (1992) detailed research of the competencies of effective and ineffective managers whose activities and practices aided the design of training and development programs. Knowing which managerial skills are important for different managerial levels and functions would definitely bring knowledge to improve training and development programs. Because of their rated importance, the data suggests that managerial training and development in today’s world of work may need to keep focus on communication and decision-making, decrease focus on administration and organization ability, and increase focus on enhancing relationships and the concept of time management. In addition, these findings may help those in selection and in succession planning; knowing that certain skills are important at different levels and functions can help determine what type of manager is needed at each level or each function. For instance, time management may be a skill set that is necessary particularly for first-level managers and not top-level executives, and hence, first level managers should have that appropriate skill for the job. Administrative/organizational ability may be important for managers in the administration function, and those in succession planning or selection for managers in that particular function should keep in mind that information, along with relevant information from any job analysis or competency model. Limitations and future directions There are some limitations to this study. First, asking managers to choose five of 15 skill clusters that are important to their current job does not provide the level of detail that could be obtained by evaluating the importance of each cluster using other methodologies. In the present study, a skill cluster is either among a manager’s top five most important or it is not. Therefore, the data does not permit an assessment of how much more important the top five skill clusters were than the ten skill clusters not selected. In addition, the data did not allow us to assess any relative ranking among the top five skills. As a result, it would be useful to assess the importance of clusters, competencies, roles, skills, or abilities using a Likert-type scale in the future. In this manner, researchers could examine to what extent each cluster is important to managers. Also, examining what managers believe are the most important skills for their job may not yield the same findings as asking what their direct reports or supervisors consider important. Future research should investigate what direct reports and supervisors of managers think are important skills for managers to acquire a more global perspective of managerial competencies, similar to those acquired through competency modeling (e.g. [12] Lucia and Lepsinger, 1999). Also, asking similar questions to managers outside the United States would bring more information about the importance of managerial skills across cultures. Combining the quantitative approach of evaluating to what extent a variety of skills are important for managers along with more qualitative methodologies of on-the-job observation and interviewing to assess competencies should create a more comprehensive picture of â€Å"today’s manager†. Finally, any future research should capture the demographic data for the sample across successive waves. Without knowing more about the sample composition for the first wave of data, it is not possible to ascertain whether changes over time are due to differences in organizational structure or function, differences in individual jobs represented by the sample, or differences in workforce composition. Therefore, explanations of changes cited in our findings may be due to structure changes and changes in technology or they may be due to changes in workforce demographics (i.e. aging baby-boomers). The best this research can conclude is that shifts in the importance of certain managerial skills have coincided with changes in the context of the world of work. However, with the present research data set, having a large sample of more than 7,000 managers with similar aggregate demographic data for each time period may tend to lead to more generalizable results than would a sample of a lesser number of participants. The world of work has changed over the past 15 years. Results of this study revealed that managers today feel the need to concentrate more on building relationships and time management skills and focus less on administrative and organizational ability. However, many of the skills managers thought were important to their job in the late 1980s and early 1990s are somewhat similar in importance from the opinions of managers in the first decade of the 2000s, particularly skills concerning communication and decision making. To answer the original research question, much like [26] Tengblad (2006) found, despite noticeable changes in the world of work, while some managerial skills shifted in importance, some managerial skills remain as important today as 15 years ago. The importance of these managerial skills not only coincided with the changes in the work environment, but also are context dependent based on managerial level and function. For instance, though time management has increased in importance over the years, managers at lower levels (i.e. first-level managers) seem to believe time management is more important to their job than those at higher levels (i.e. top- or executive-level managers). In essence, one should take note not only of how the importance of certain skills change over time, but also, that certain skills believed to be important for managers at one particular level or function may be more or less important for managers at other levels or other functions. 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(1988), â€Å"Mintzberg revisited: a study of chief executive officers†, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 9 No. 6, pp. 17-21. 4. Cronbach, L.J. (1975), â€Å"Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology†, American Psychologist, Vol. 30, pp. 116-27. 5. DeMeuse, K.P., Bergmann, T.J., Vanderheide, P.A. and Roraaf, C.E. (2004), â€Å"New evidence regarding organizational downsizing and a firm’s financial performance: a long-term analysis†, Journal of Managerial Issues, Vol. 16, pp. 155-77. 6. Halbesleben, J.R.B., Novicevic, M.M., Harvey, M.G. and Buckley, M.R. (2003), â€Å"Awareness of temporal complexity in leadership of creativity and innovation: a competency-based model†, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 14, pp. 433-54. 7. Kanter, R.M. (1989), â€Å"The new managerial work†, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 67, pp. 85-92. 8. Kaplan, R.E. (1987), The Warp and Woof of the General Manager’s Job, Tech. Rep. (27), Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC. 9. Kotter, J.P. (1982), The General Managers, The Free Press, New York, NY. 10. Kraut, A.I., Pedigo, P.R., McKenna, D.D. and Dunnette, M.D. (1989), â€Å"The role of the manager: what’s really important in different management jobs†, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 3, pp. 286-93. 11. Lipshitz, R. and Nevo, B. (1992), â€Å"Who is a ‘good manager’?†, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 13 No. 6, pp. 3-7. 12. Lucia, A.D. and Lepsinger, R. (1999), The Art and Science of Competency Modeling: Pinpointing Critical Success Factors in Organizations, Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer, San Francisco, CA. 13. Luthans, F. (1988), â€Å"Successful versus effective real managers†, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 2, pp. 127-32. 14. McCall, M.W. Jr and Kaplan, R.E. (1984), Whatever It Takes: Decision Makers at Work, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 15. McCall, M.W. Jr, Lombardo, M.M. and Devries, D.L. (1979), The Looking Glass Inc. ® Simulation, Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC. 16. McKinley, W., Zhao, J. and Rust, K.G. (2000), â€Å"Sociocognitive interpretation of organizational downsizing†, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 25, pp. 227-43. 17. Miller, D.B. (1990), â€Å"Organizational, environmental, and work design strategies that foster competence†, in Willis, S.L. and Dubin, S.S. (Eds), Maintaining Professional Competence: Approaches to Career Enhancement Vitality, and Success throughout a Work Life, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, pp. 233-48. 18. Mintzberg, H. (1973), The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row, New York, NY. 19. Mintzberg, H. (1990), â€Å"The manager’s job: folklore and fact†, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 68, pp. 163-76. 20. Pearson, C. and Chatterjee, S. (2003), â€Å"Managerial roles in Asia: an empirical study of Mintzberg’s role formulation in four Asian countries†, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 22, pp. 694-707. 21. Salas, E., Sims, D.E. and Burke, C.S. (2005), â€Å"Is there a ‘Big five’ in teamwork?†, Small Group Research, Vol. 36, pp. 555-99. 22. Salas, E., Kosarzycki, M.P., Tannenbaum, S.I. and Carnegie, D. (2004), â€Å"Principles and advice for understanding and promoting effective teamwork in organizations†, in Burke, R.J. and Cooper, C. (Eds), Leading in Turbulent Times, Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, pp. 95-120. 23. Sayles, L.R. (1979), Leadership: What Effective Managers Really Do†¦ and How They Do It, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. 24. Stewart, R. (1976), Contracts in Management, McGraw-Hill, London. 25. Stockdale, M.S. and Crosby, F.J. (2004), The Psychology and Management of Workplace Diversity, Blackwell Publishers, Malden, MA. 26. Tengblad, S. (2006), â€Å"Is there a ‘new managerial work’? A comparison with Henry Mintzberg’s classic study 30 years later†, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 43, pp. 1437-61. 27. Wallace, P. (2004), The Internet in the Workplace: How New Technology Is Transforming Work, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. 28. Zaccaro, S.J., Ardison, S.D. and Orvis, K.A. (2004), â€Å"Leadership in virtual teams†, in Day, D.V. and Zaccaro, S.J. (Eds), Leader Development for Transforming Organizations: Growing Leaders for Tomorrow, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 267-92. Appendix Corresponding author William A. Gentry can be contacted at: gentryb@leaders.ccl.org AuthorAffiliation William A. Gentry, Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA Lauren S. Harris, University of Georgia, Atlanta, Georgia, USA Becca A. Baker, JCPenney Co., Plano, Texas, USA Jean Brittain Leslie, Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA Illustration Figure 1: Importance rankings for managerial skills (2004-2006) by managerial level Figure 2: Importance rankings for managerial skills (2004-2006) by organizational function Table I: Descriptions of managerial skill clusters Table II: Overall importance rankings for managerial skills (1998-1992 and 2004-2006) Copyright Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2008

Descartes Existence of God Essay

The existence of God has been a question since the idea of God was conceived. Descartes tries to prove Gods existence, to disprove his Evil demon theory, and to show that there is without a doubt something external to ones own existence. He is looking for a definite certainty, a foundation for which he can base all of his beliefs and know for a fact that they are true. Descartes overall project is to find a definite certainty on which he can base all his knowledge and beliefs. A foundation that he will be able to prove without a doubt. To find a definite certainty he uses a methodical doubt, this states that anything that could be doubted must be taken as false. This is done to find an absolute certainty for which to base all knowledge. Descartes develops his Evil Genius theory to bring doubt to all senses and hence making them false. The theory says that it is possible that there is someone (an evil genius) who is controlling our mind. If so we wouldn’t be sure whether or not what we see was real or just a dream, therefore all of our senses would be doubtable and thus taken as false. This theory proves that nothing external is certain and must be proven false to continue his quest for truth and certainty. Descartes second meditation gives a definite certainty for which to use as his foundation to build his beliefs. Then his third meditation proves the existence of God and the external world, while disproving the evil genius theory. That definite certainty that cannot be doubted, is the fact that I exist. Whenever I utter or think â€Å"I am† I know this to be absolutely true, without doubt. From this definite foundation Descartes tries to prove that there is something external to the mind. So he states the law of casualty. This basically says that nothing can be created from nothing, and that the less perfect can not create something more perfect or better than itself. Then if there is an idea in our minds that we didn’t create, something else created it. If God is more perfect than us, then we could not have created God but God created us. Descartes then wrote about the idea of God. He said that God is infinite and could not have been created by us because God is more perfect than us thus undoubtable and certain. The idea that God exists disproves the Evil Genius theory therefore proves the existence of an external world. Anslem and Descartes’ theories both prove that there is a God and they both use some similar ideas in their premises’. For instance, they both rely on the faith that there is an idea of God; he is perfect and self evident. God could not have been conceived if there wasn’t a God. Though, Descartes says that the less perfect can not create something more perfect or better than itself, and that we are less perfect than God therefore we could not have created God. So, this proves the existence of God and an external world. On the other hand, Anslem says Existence is greater than conception and nothing greater can be conceived then God. Therefore God must exist. In my opinion descatres has successfully proven the existence of God as well as one can because he started from the beginning and logically found a true foundation of beliefs and from there proved the existence of God and an external world. consequently making our senses less doubtable, and more certain.

Operation Management

agement AEREN FOUNDATION’S Maharashtra Govt. Reg. No. : F-11724 [pic] SUBJECT : OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT Total Marks : 80 CASE-1 (16 Marks) Bloomsday Outfitters produces T-shirts for road races. They need to acquire some new stamping machines to produce 30,000 good T-shirts per month. Their plant operates 200 hours per month, but the new machines will be used for T-shirts only 60 percent of the time and the output usually includes 5 percent that are â€Å"seconds† and unusable. The stamping operation takes 1 minute per T-shirt, and the stamping machines are expected to have 90 percent efficiency considering adjustments, changeover of patterns, and unavoidable downtime. How many stamping machines are required? CASE-2 (16 Marks) In the table given below the Distribution Manager is expected to service these DCs as per the demands placed. If the actual sales after completing week one is as follows, what would be the quantities that would need amendment as far as Distribution Manager is concerned to service for week two and onwards? After week one the actual sales to Forecasted sales for week one ratio is as under: Mumbai did 80 % of forecast , Lucknow did 75 % of forecast Kolkata did 60 % of week one forecast Chennai did 125 % of forecast and Delhi did 150 % of week one forecast [pic] Note : Kolkata will receive transit stocks in week 2 . CASE-3 (16 Marks) After working for 30 years, Ramjee Somjee Dutt opted for VRS and started a courier company and did very well in the first four years. He was now looking for expansion of his business and decided to venture into Road transportation business between Chennai and Mumbai and Mumbai and Delhi as he felt that he could do well on this line. However before taking a final decision he hires your Management Consultant firm formed by yourself. He has requested you to work out the Price to quote his clients for these two routes considering the costs involved. He expects to earn a minimum profit of Rs 1000 per day per truck after meeting all expenses. Your analysis of market conditions tell you the following: Vehicle cost Rs 7 lacs Depreciation 15 % Maintenance costs per day Rs 150 Drivers monthly Salary Rs 5000 : Attendants monthly salary Rs 3000 . Misc expenses Rs 200 per day. Driver allowance is Rs 125 per day and attendant gets Rs 75. Diesel cost per liter is Rs 25 and the vehicle gives an average mileage of 4 km to a liter. The Financial institutions offer loans at 10 % interest pa, which Ramjee has been negotiating. It has been observed that on an average the vehicle covers 400 km per day. The distance between Mumbai to Delhi is 1500 km and Mumbai to Chennai is 1350 km. The driver gets rest day in Mumbai only for one day after they return from any trip. CASE-4 (16 Marks) A company is operating in two unrelated businesses. The first one is making common salt, which is sold in one-kilogram consumer packs. The second business is making readymade garments. The owner of the businesses has decided to implement Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) in one of the two businesses, which is likely to give him greater benefit. Assuming that the current turnover and profits of both the units are comparable, compare the relative benefits and limitations of Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) for these two businesses. CASE-5 (16 Marks) A Manufacturer of motorcycles buys spark plugs at Rs. 15 each. Now he wishes to manufacture the plugs in his own factory. The estimated cost for the manufacture of spark plugs is around Rs. 50,000=00 and the variable cost comes to Rs. 5 per spark plug. The Production Manager advises the Manufacturer that the factory should go for manufacturing instead of procuring them from the open market. List out reasons for the decision of the Production Manager backed up by the necessary data. ———————– AN ISO 9001 : 2008 CERTIFIED INTERNATIONAL B-SCHOOL Operation Management agement AEREN FOUNDATION’S Maharashtra Govt. Reg. No. : F-11724 [pic] SUBJECT : OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT Total Marks : 80 CASE-1 (16 Marks) Bloomsday Outfitters produces T-shirts for road races. They need to acquire some new stamping machines to produce 30,000 good T-shirts per month. Their plant operates 200 hours per month, but the new machines will be used for T-shirts only 60 percent of the time and the output usually includes 5 percent that are â€Å"seconds† and unusable. The stamping operation takes 1 minute per T-shirt, and the stamping machines are expected to have 90 percent efficiency considering adjustments, changeover of patterns, and unavoidable downtime. How many stamping machines are required? CASE-2 (16 Marks) In the table given below the Distribution Manager is expected to service these DCs as per the demands placed. If the actual sales after completing week one is as follows, what would be the quantities that would need amendment as far as Distribution Manager is concerned to service for week two and onwards? After week one the actual sales to Forecasted sales for week one ratio is as under: Mumbai did 80 % of forecast , Lucknow did 75 % of forecast Kolkata did 60 % of week one forecast Chennai did 125 % of forecast and Delhi did 150 % of week one forecast [pic] Note : Kolkata will receive transit stocks in week 2 . CASE-3 (16 Marks) After working for 30 years, Ramjee Somjee Dutt opted for VRS and started a courier company and did very well in the first four years. He was now looking for expansion of his business and decided to venture into Road transportation business between Chennai and Mumbai and Mumbai and Delhi as he felt that he could do well on this line. However before taking a final decision he hires your Management Consultant firm formed by yourself. He has requested you to work out the Price to quote his clients for these two routes considering the costs involved. He expects to earn a minimum profit of Rs 1000 per day per truck after meeting all expenses. Your analysis of market conditions tell you the following: Vehicle cost Rs 7 lacs Depreciation 15 % Maintenance costs per day Rs 150 Drivers monthly Salary Rs 5000 : Attendants monthly salary Rs 3000 . Misc expenses Rs 200 per day. Driver allowance is Rs 125 per day and attendant gets Rs 75. Diesel cost per liter is Rs 25 and the vehicle gives an average mileage of 4 km to a liter. The Financial institutions offer loans at 10 % interest pa, which Ramjee has been negotiating. It has been observed that on an average the vehicle covers 400 km per day. The distance between Mumbai to Delhi is 1500 km and Mumbai to Chennai is 1350 km. The driver gets rest day in Mumbai only for one day after they return from any trip. CASE-4 (16 Marks) A company is operating in two unrelated businesses. The first one is making common salt, which is sold in one-kilogram consumer packs. The second business is making readymade garments. The owner of the businesses has decided to implement Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) in one of the two businesses, which is likely to give him greater benefit. Assuming that the current turnover and profits of both the units are comparable, compare the relative benefits and limitations of Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) for these two businesses. CASE-5 (16 Marks) A Manufacturer of motorcycles buys spark plugs at Rs. 15 each. Now he wishes to manufacture the plugs in his own factory. The estimated cost for the manufacture of spark plugs is around Rs. 50,000=00 and the variable cost comes to Rs. 5 per spark plug. The Production Manager advises the Manufacturer that the factory should go for manufacturing instead of procuring them from the open market. List out reasons for the decision of the Production Manager backed up by the necessary data. ———————– AN ISO 9001 : 2008 CERTIFIED INTERNATIONAL B-SCHOOL Operation Management agement AEREN FOUNDATION’S Maharashtra Govt. Reg. No. : F-11724 [pic] SUBJECT : OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT Total Marks : 80 CASE-1 (16 Marks) Bloomsday Outfitters produces T-shirts for road races. They need to acquire some new stamping machines to produce 30,000 good T-shirts per month. Their plant operates 200 hours per month, but the new machines will be used for T-shirts only 60 percent of the time and the output usually includes 5 percent that are â€Å"seconds† and unusable. The stamping operation takes 1 minute per T-shirt, and the stamping machines are expected to have 90 percent efficiency considering adjustments, changeover of patterns, and unavoidable downtime. How many stamping machines are required? CASE-2 (16 Marks) In the table given below the Distribution Manager is expected to service these DCs as per the demands placed. If the actual sales after completing week one is as follows, what would be the quantities that would need amendment as far as Distribution Manager is concerned to service for week two and onwards? After week one the actual sales to Forecasted sales for week one ratio is as under: Mumbai did 80 % of forecast , Lucknow did 75 % of forecast Kolkata did 60 % of week one forecast Chennai did 125 % of forecast and Delhi did 150 % of week one forecast [pic] Note : Kolkata will receive transit stocks in week 2 . CASE-3 (16 Marks) After working for 30 years, Ramjee Somjee Dutt opted for VRS and started a courier company and did very well in the first four years. He was now looking for expansion of his business and decided to venture into Road transportation business between Chennai and Mumbai and Mumbai and Delhi as he felt that he could do well on this line. However before taking a final decision he hires your Management Consultant firm formed by yourself. He has requested you to work out the Price to quote his clients for these two routes considering the costs involved. He expects to earn a minimum profit of Rs 1000 per day per truck after meeting all expenses. Your analysis of market conditions tell you the following: Vehicle cost Rs 7 lacs Depreciation 15 % Maintenance costs per day Rs 150 Drivers monthly Salary Rs 5000 : Attendants monthly salary Rs 3000 . Misc expenses Rs 200 per day. Driver allowance is Rs 125 per day and attendant gets Rs 75. Diesel cost per liter is Rs 25 and the vehicle gives an average mileage of 4 km to a liter. The Financial institutions offer loans at 10 % interest pa, which Ramjee has been negotiating. It has been observed that on an average the vehicle covers 400 km per day. The distance between Mumbai to Delhi is 1500 km and Mumbai to Chennai is 1350 km. The driver gets rest day in Mumbai only for one day after they return from any trip. CASE-4 (16 Marks) A company is operating in two unrelated businesses. The first one is making common salt, which is sold in one-kilogram consumer packs. The second business is making readymade garments. The owner of the businesses has decided to implement Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) in one of the two businesses, which is likely to give him greater benefit. Assuming that the current turnover and profits of both the units are comparable, compare the relative benefits and limitations of Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) for these two businesses. CASE-5 (16 Marks) A Manufacturer of motorcycles buys spark plugs at Rs. 15 each. Now he wishes to manufacture the plugs in his own factory. The estimated cost for the manufacture of spark plugs is around Rs. 50,000=00 and the variable cost comes to Rs. 5 per spark plug. The Production Manager advises the Manufacturer that the factory should go for manufacturing instead of procuring them from the open market. List out reasons for the decision of the Production Manager backed up by the necessary data. ———————– AN ISO 9001 : 2008 CERTIFIED INTERNATIONAL B-SCHOOL

The synthetic opiate Desomorphine also known as Krokodil Research Paper

The synthetic opiate Desomorphine also known as Krokodil - Research Paper Example Due to its pharmacologic traits, desomorphine displays an increased potential of causing high dependence. Against the backdrop of initial possible cases of Krokodil use in Western Europe, it is imperative to provide information regarding the grave effects of Krokodil (Gahr, et al. 860). Desomorphine (C17H21NO2), known as dihydrodesoxymorphine was first synthesized in 1932 in United States of America. The objective of this synthesis was aimed at providing an alternative to morphine in terms of addiction properties, tolerance an enhanced side effect profile. Conversely, desomorphine was unable to achieve the set objectives. On the contrary, this synthetic opiate portrayed amplified dependence potential in comparison to morphine. Research on this drug have indicate that its analgesic potency is between 8 to 10 times higher that that of morphine. Additionally, desomorphine shows a rapid onset of action and a shorter half-life in terms of elimination. Such properties of desomorphine may account for the elevated addictive potential in contrast to morphine (Veilleux, et al 161). In the recent past, there have been drastic occurrences in the number of cases in abuse of synthetic narcotics that are produced by handicraft techniques from codeine containing medicines. Various over the counter tablets and drugs supplied at cost friendly prices can be used for the synthesis of such synthetic opiates. These codeine containing drugs are exemplified by commercial names such as Codelac, Sedal-M and Codterpin. The total amount of codeine in such medicines is in the range of 8-10 milligrams. Systematically referred to as 4, 5-ÃŽ ±-epoxy-17-methylmorphinan-3-ol, desomorphine is obtained from codeine containing tablets with the use of phosphorus and iodine. In comparison to codeine itself, this synthetic derivative shows significant strength on impact to the body. Major drawbacks are encountered in the descriptions of possible byproducts in

Financial strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Financial strategies - Essay Example or events during this financial year and is poised to hold much more in future due to the tremendous encouragement and support it has been receiving for its events, both large and small. AoC Management Services conference and events team focus on arranging conferences and meets of all shapes and hues, right from small workshops for 10 delegates to major residential events for up to 1500 delegates. It is seen that 50% of these events are run on an annual basis, such as the AoCs Annual Meets and the AoC Human Resources Conference. The team also organizes a variety of national events based on current issues faced by the educational institutions in this sector. There are events that range between one to three days, and regularly include entertainment, gala dinners, awards ceremonies and special activities for delegates. On the other hand; Informa Plc has nearly 49% of their business from event management programs while the rest of the business is from training and general management consultancy services. Background of both companies: For Informa Plc, Revenues for the first half year 2009 was  £636.3m, which is 1.4% higher than the corresponding period in 2008. Similarly, adjusted profits were higher at 4.6% reaching  £146m. It is believed that the relative strengthening of US $ and Euro â‚ ¬ has been the major reasons for the improved performance during the first half of the year 2009. Its real effect, however, has been in terms of contributing dramatically or staging recoveries, to a certain extent. Thus the losses caused by strengthening of Pound Sterling during earlier periods were balanced. However, it is seen that its operating profits have declined in the year under reference, coming down from  £77.7m in the first half of 2008 to just  £61.1m during the corresponding period in the year 2009, showing a fall of  £16.6M. There are several factors which could explain this decline in profits, including  £10.8m of business restructuring costs and yet another  £ 50m

Enron corporation's power project in India Essay

Enron corporation's power project in India - Essay Example Enron entered into a contract with the Maharashtra Sate Electricity Board (MSEB) by risking its and its allied companies’ stakes in Dabhol Power Project (DPP). The discussions for the project started with the two principal stakeholders from the Indian side, the Indian state of Maharashtra and the other was Maharashtra State Electricity Board (MSEB). The project proposal of building a 2015 megawatt power plant with the investment of US$3 billion was given a green signal initially (Negotiation-project-India, 2010). Enron was not the only principal stakeholder; it was a sort of joint collaboration with the investment of 10% each by General Electric and Bechtel. Sustenance of the project was detriment to the availability of Liquefied Natural Gas to power the plant, which Enron planned to secure from one of its joint venture in Qatar, 1200 miles away from the power plant situated in Dabhol. The project was the largest ever project taken by Enron in India, supposed to produce electr icity in two phases. In the first phase it was planned to produce 695 megawatts from the locally available LNG, while the second phase target was to produce 1320 megawatts through natural gas channeled from Qatar (Negotiation-project-India, 2010).Enron was expecting huge profits from this project for the company investors from the MSEB of Maharashtra. It took just five days to materialize the contract by signing a memorandum of agreement between the MSEB and DPP. (Negotiation-project-India, 2010).... Sustenance of the project was detriment to the availability of Liquefied Natural Gas to power the plant, which Enron planned to secure from one of its joint venture in Qatar, 1200 miles away from the power plant situated in Dabhol. The project was the largest ever project taken by Enron in India, supposed to produce electricity in two phases. In the first phase it was planned to produce 695 megawatts from the locally available LNG, while the second phase target was to produce 1320 megawatts through natural gas channeled from Qatar (Negotiation-project-India, 2010). Enron was expecting huge profits from this project for the company investors from the MSEB of Maharashtra. It took just five days to materialize the contract by signing a memorandum of agreement between the MSEB and DPP, representing Enron of purchasing electricity at the rate of 7.3 US cents per kilowatt hour (Negotiation-project-India, 2010). What went wrong that the project failed? From the very start, it was a mistake made by the management at Enron to invest in a technology-efficient project in India without attempting an analysis of Indian socio-political environment. One thing became clear that the project was cleared without adhering to set legal and corporate procedures, essential for such a huge global venture. It also became evident that Enron adopted the unethical path in securing the contract. It was totally in the darkness over the political unsettling environment in India. All its negotiating and renegotiating expertise failed as the MSEB could not pay the bill against the used electricity. Enron had to confront opposition from many fronts; it had to initiate counter-campaigns to create positive conditions in its favor; legal battles also ensued.

The Tutankhamens Curse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Tutankhamens Curse - Essay Example Numerous scholars became interested in this case and started searching for rational explanation of the phenomenon. And here, too, various theories have emerged. One of the most likely theories suggested by many scientists as a result of scrutinous researches is that the key role in deaths was played by the environment of the burial chamber that actually affected health of those who entered the newly unlocked tomb. This theory originates in the first half of the 20th century when it was also supported by Sir Arthur Conan Dole who considered the fungi to have been put into the tomb deliberately to punish robbers. In 1986, Dr. Caroline Stenger-Phillip suggested that it was an ancient mould existing in the tomb. Modern researches prove that there are indeed specimens of pathogenic moulds and bacteria that can cause allergic reactions varying from congestion to bleeding in lungs. An Egyptologist from Philadelphia, food placed into the tombs intended for afterlife, could have attracted ins ects, moulds and bacteria. On the other hand, this theory has its flaws as if all entering the tomb were exposed to the deadly fungi, they probably would have died much sooner that many months and years later. The theory that appears to be more plausible was offered by Mark Nelson in 2002 and involves statistical methods as a basis for the explanation. According to the theory, average life expectancy of those members of the expedition who were exposed to the curse and those who were not differs little.

Rejuvenating Jamaican tourism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Rejuvenating Jamaican tourism - Research Paper Example It has a monarchy system of government. It has an ideal climate for agriculture and tourism industries. In 1940s, the country discovered bauxite and the government shifted from banana and sugar export to mining. People in Jamaica share a combination of culture from Spanish and Taino. They use English as their official language thought many people use a local language called Patois. Section A: Internal and External Assessment of Tourism in Jamaica In the Greater Antilles, Jamaica leads in the tourism industry. The government depends most from the tourism industry. The industry provides about 50 % of the country’s foreign exchange. It provides about a fourth of the total jobs offered in Jamaica. Tourism industry helps in boosting the economy and creation of job opportunities to the youth. Tourism activities are carried in the northern coast island, which includes communities like Ocho Rios, Montego Bay and Port Antonio. Other places with tourism activities include western tip is lands. The country has many airports and airlines, which help in transportation of tourist. According to Clarke (2009) the government also helps in development of the industry. Each finance year, the minister for tourism gets same funds to manage the industry. The government has worked to ensure success of the tourism industry because it contributes a lot in the government revenue. The fame gained through Olympic and music has made Jamaica attract more international visitors. Tourism Demand and Market in Jamaica Tourism has been on high demand in Jamaica. The famous musician, â€Å"Bob Marley† and the Olympic sprinter, â€Å"Usain Bolt† promoted the image of Jamaica world wide. Many people, tour in Jamaica to witness the Olympic champions and famous musicians. The level of visitors has been on the increase from 2000 to 2012. Tourism income increased to 53 % from 2000 to 2005. Tourism net earning doubled from 2000 to 2005 reaching $ 437 million. The rate increased from 2005 to 2010. Tourism industry will earn 1 billion in 2012. According to Black (2011) the demand for tourism does not decrease like other industries, which do not have a consistence growth. In 2000, the hotel occupation rose from 41 % to 65 %, and this has risen up to 90 % this year. Consecutively, the industry has grown for the last five years. In 2008, the industry had a total income of about 500 million, in 2009 it rose to 570, in 2010, it rose again to 700, 2011 it rose to 850 and in 2012 the income will reach 1 billion. The graph below represents Jamaica’s income from the tourism industry. The market of tourism has been promoted by many factors ranging from environmental, social and political. Tourism is promoted by people form other countries and the citizens of Jamaica. Citizens from different counties visit beaches and other places preserved by government for tourism purposes. People from other countries visit the cities in order to have a look of the geographical fea tures. They also visit in order to see the famous Jamaican sprinters who always win in the Olympic Games. According to Dove (2010) music industry has attracted many people who visit the areas. The international visitors contribute more to the income than the local tourist. It is estimated that about 70 % revenue from the industry is generated by international tourists from foreign countries. The remaining 30 % comes from the local tourist or the individual

Position Research Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Position Research Paper - Essay Example Schools can help children facing substantial obstacles of poverty and discrimination to learn to read, write, compute, solve and become the good contribution citizens? Karen Chenoweth and Kati Haycock try to answer this question in their book Its Being Done; Academic Success in Unexpected (2007). Looking at the history of the American education system the answer whether schools have the potential to deliver the pearls of wisdom and knowledge to the poor kids is ‘yes’. The schools have the potential to deliver. It is and not a mathematical question of judging the resources against the population. It is the undertaking of faith and commitment. Quality education does not only mean that one should put together a bunch of students from all races and ethnicities in the same class. It defeats the purpose because the competition will eradicate the less privileged students. Increased competition improves student performance (Marlow, 2000); however, the competition should be at the same level. The educators and the teachers need to design the courses and teaching methodologies according to the students’ needs. Does the Californian public schools have this acumen and the vision? The authors write in the book that standard suburban schools paint the perfect picture of this unjust education competition where wealthy white girls excel in education and the poor African-American and Latino children barely survive. The solution is not only confined to giving due attention. Interestingly, ethnic and racial discrimination also plagues the education system. It is a common observation that there are schools where all the kids are whites or from the upper middle class. Such segregation or accumulation of ethnicities reflects the test scores of the students. The elementary schools show high average state test scores and high schools show above average SAT scores. These schools also feel proud in sending dozens of kids to Ivy League colleges. But

Information Technolgy Management in a Company Essay

Information Technolgy Management in a Company - Essay Example Management of information technology in this company is done at three levels that include the executive level, the administrative level, and the supervisory level. The executive level includes board of directors and Chief Executive Officers (CEO’s) who make decisions involving the technology to adopt according to the company’s needs. The administrative level involves staff who implements decisions from the executive level, and participate in using the adopted technology to run the organization. The supervisory level involves technology experts and consultants who examine and analyze the entire information technology system to ensure it is in line with the organization needs, and operates efficiently (Burgess, 2002). Decisions regarding IT development emerge when the current system does not suffice the needs of the organization. This may lead to an overhaul of the current system or improvement to ensure performance. This is determined through evaluation of the entire system to determine which area of the organization needs improvement in order to conform to the company’s requirements. Appropriate measures are communicated to the executive, which debates and decides on the best area to develop. This decision is effected by the administration, which implements the new technology in its current system (Burgess, 2002). A thorough evaluation of the current management system reveals areas of the company that need improvement. Advanced technological developments require improvement on these areas by adopting advanced technology to help in streamlining the under-performing areas according to the company requirements. Resources for different projects are allocated according to the company’s needs. Under performing areas are allocated more funds for development projects to streamline them with other units to ensure uniform performance (Burgess, 2002). Technological advancements

Hardware Components Essay Example for Free

Hardware Components Essay There are several types of hardware storage devices invented and designed to facilitate encoded and retrieved data storage in computers. Some of the examples of these storage devices include the ff. : the hard disk, floppy disk, RAM, CD ROM, and tape. Furthermore, these storage devices together with hardware component of clock speed play their distinct roles to determine the speed and speed rate of a computer (MSD, 2006). Body First, introduced in 1956 and developed during 1973, by the IBM company, the hard disk, or â€Å"hard disk drive† as mentioned, is one example of a stable and reliable secondary hardware storage device that efficiently facilitates speed. It functions as some kind of an optimal and purposeful storeroom which saves accumulated and encoded numeric and digital data, and it is also appropriate for running application programs on spinning magnet-plated platters that is performed by execution and command by the user. Hard disk drives were created for personal computer usage. It has features like audio playing, video gaming, video recording, etc (MSD, 2006). Second, the role of hard disks in determining the speed of a computer is very significant because with the use of hard disk, it can makes the access of files easier and faster as it runs or rotates. The bigger the platters or dishes used by the hard disk to run, the faster its speed and the smaller the platters, the lower the capacity of the computer to run, work, or access files faster. The number of disks in a specific computer may vary at a minimum number of 3 disks to a maximum number of 5 running disks revolving 60 per second. Most hard disk drives make use of removable cartridges while some do not. Most people create back up from the files they saved from the disk since the recent hard disk is created with such a sensitive feature. It can store data from 20 M up to 40 M (MSD, 2006). Third, a floppy disk coming in two sizes: 5 ? and 3 ? inches, is a detachable or unfixed storage device which is already obsolete. It is secondary as compared to the huge capacity of hard disk when it comes to data storage memory. The uses of floppy disks though, become popular for it is much cheaper than the cost of a hard disk. Moreover, it is more convenient to carry floppy disks wherever you go and save data for the use of backup purposes. Moreover, floppy disks make use of the delicate, magnetic and bendable disk which is film-like in color and enclosed in a protective plastic shield or case. The roles of floppy disks portray no role in determining the speed of a computer—speed is determined by the Central Processing unit and its memory rather. For practical reasons, hard disks are favored over floppy disks especially when the cost of the first (hard disks) becomes more inexpensive than the latter. Further, floppy disks are really essentially slower and more sensitive than hard disk that is why it is more prone to damage (MSD, 2006). Fourth, random access memory (RAM) is the primarily appropriate for storage of data that occurs in the computer’s memory and is stored directly at the computer’s Central Processing Unit (CPU). The two types of RAM are the SRAM and the DRAM. SRAM stands for Static RAM and the latter meaning, Dynamic RAM (DRAM). With the use of RAM, user can program the CPU to read, write, and locate data. The role of RAM is to carry out and execute calculations at high speed which is made possible by the said feature of RAM or computer memory that operates random to locate items or applications in the computer system (MC, 2008). Fifth, with the use of compact disks, the CD-ROM operates and exemplifies the use of read-only memory for sharing and sending applications like music files, games, and other multimedia files and desktop applications. The capacity of CD-ROM when it comes to data storage is up to 650 M. Recently, CD-ROMs tend to be much cheaper than other storage devices. CD-ROM is appropriate for expansion of one’s personalized computer system. In addition, CD-ROM does not play a role in determining the speed of a computer. In fact, user retrieves data slower than any other available data computer storage device in the market if the computer is not supported by CD-ROM’s â€Å"data transfer speed (MSD, 2006). † Sixth, tape is a thin strip of plastic, magnetic coated device used mainly for recording and it is known to be appropriate for secondary data storage or backup. Moreover, this tape is most appropriate for the purpose of calculations or â€Å"personal computing. † There is a no role that a tape plays in order to determine speed in a particular computer; further, data access is slower than expected together with its inconvenience for the required retrieval of data in orderly and chronological manner (MSD, 2006). Lastly, clock speed—as measured in megahertz (MHz), is the â€Å"speed of the internal clock of microprocessor. † Clock speed is appropriate for functioning in operation in the internal processing of a computer. The clock speed plays an important role in determining the speed of a computer and it affects the overall performance of the computer (MSD, 2006). Conclusion Several types of hardware storage devices are invented for data storage in computers: the hard disk, floppy disk, RAM, CD ROM, and tape. All mediums except for the floppy disks, CD-ROM, and tape play a role in determining the speed of a computer. These devices except for the other three are hardware components that determine the speed and performance of a computer.

Technology in Education Essay Example for Free

Technology in Education Essay The use of technology in education has brought about great changes in the way we teach and learn. In this digital age it is imperative that technology is embedded into all aspect of learning and teaching. Educators face many challenges when it comes to integrating technology into the classroom due to lack of training, and the availability of technological equipment. Research has shown that to cater to our students who are digital natives, and to remain globally competitive we need to ensure that classrooms spring forward into the 21st century. According to Pelham, Crabtree, Nyiri, â€Å"Education researchers, government officials, and the international development community often have different ideas about the best approach to improving educational attainment across the globe† (2009, p. 74). The same can be said for educators and district leaders; there are a variety of opinions on how important the use of technology is within the classroom, and the necessity of it in preparing students to excel in today’s digital society. In the early 1970s a very small number of schools had access to computers, and usually those schools we home of the elite. However, during the late 20th century the obvious necessity to incorporate computers into the classroom became apparent. Companies such as Apple and Hewlett Packard ran promotions, which allowed more districts the ability to purchase technology for their schools (Nyiri et. al. , 2009). Since then, the integration of technology into education and schools has become paramount in the ability for students to become prepared for the 21st Century workplace. Schools are enthusiastic about introducing technology and computers into the classroom but there are several obstacles that they must overcome. The first obstacle is the lack of funding. Many schools embrace the idea of integrating technology into the classroom but do not have the funding to provide the technology to their students or teachers. President Obama’s charge to facilitate every classroom with computers and wire every school for Internet use can be seen as the light at the end of the tunnel. During the summer of 2009, several educational groups urged congress to spend several billion dollars to improve technology in the classroom, and to ensure that teachers knew how to use this technology effectively. According to Miners â€Å"Recognizing the importance of the matter, president Obama and congressional leaders included $650 million in the federal stimulus package for the enhancing education† (2009, p. 35). It is expected that over 25% of this funding is used to train teachers on the use of this technology. In acquiring technology for schools, and training teachers on the effective use of this technology they will in turn prepare our students to be globally competitive in this digital world. There are a variety of technological tools that can be utilized in the classroom; and although technology is available often times it is not used. The main issue that needs to be overcome is the lack of training that teachers receive on this technology which in turn creates a sense of apprehensiveness in integrating technology into the classroom. As stated by Miners, teachers have desired to use this technology in the classroom but have done so poorly due to â€Å"perhaps an unsatisfactory implementation of poorly conceived programs† (2009, p. 36). In 1997 a group of teachers completed a study on how the integration of technology could be used to enhance student learning. This became known as the Teacher Leadership Program. This program has transformed into a professional development for teachers which train them on the use of technology in the classroom through an intensive summer study and continuous online training. Then these teachers can return to their schools and train their colleagues (Miners, 2009). Modeling the integration of technology into their lesson plans is imperative to emphasizing the ease and effectiveness of this technology in the classroom. Not only this, but educators need to utilize technology when collaborating and communicating with their colleagues. Email, instant messaging, and school websites are just a few of the ways that colleagues can use technology with their peers’ all the while modeling appropriate use for the students. When students walk into the classroom they want to be immersed in the lifestyle they are accustomed to at home. Cell phones, personal computers, IPods, and gaming systems are the norm at home, students have grown up with this technology at their fingertips and know how to operate it in most cases more efficiently than most technology professors. They are accustomed to communication via instant messaging, reading digital books, listening to music on mp3 files, posting their diary on blogs, and making friends with facebook. Entering a classroom that is filled with old books, white boards, and no technology present does not provide them with the type of environment in which they need to learn. As Harris and Rea state, with â€Å"the Google/Facebook generation accustomed to being connected to information sources and social networks all the time and in many forms, how can we best use these technologies to transform, supplement, or even supplant current pedagogical practices† (2009, p. 37). The first issue that needs to be addressed is the use of technological equipment in the classrooms. Smart boards, also known as digital white boards are the wave of the future. According to Corcoran, smart boards are â€Å"are a portal to the digital world† (2009), students can interact with the information on the screen using touch screen technology. Almost one third of classrooms in the United States have Smart boards, which in turn allows students in these classrooms to become actively engaged in learning. Students who have access to smart board technology become â€Å"doers† in the classroom rather than sponges ingesting the information disseminated by the teacher. It allows students of all learning styles the opportunity to learn; given the fact that it is of great importance to differentiate in education, being able to cater to all learning styles whether visual, auditory, or kinesthetic through the smart board leads to a very productive learning environment. However, an interactive white board in the classroom is merely a white board if it is not used effectively. PowerPoint presentations which are interactive are much more interesting than an oral lecture from the teacher, or taking notes from a book. Being allowed to manipulate and interact with the information allows the students to absorb and retain what they are learning. Teachers can create lessons which are visually stimulating, link their lessons with online websites, incorporate music, images, and video into the lesson. They can create online games such as Jeopardy or Millionaire to assess student learning, or use programs such as ClassScape to assess students learning. Teachers can create web quests, which are interactive systems of learning. By allowing students to use the internet as a form of learning rather than constant dictation from the teacher we allow them to attain the information themselves therefore retaining it more easily. Jonassen, Howland, Marra, and Crismond (2008) noted that web activities such as WebQuests or scavenger hunts are common tools that allow for independent thinking, challenge students intellectually and assist with problem solving skills. The integration of technology into the classroom are key in motivating the students to learn, to become active in the classroom, and to use the knowledge that they have in dealing with technology in the classroom. Gone are the days of paper and pencil classrooms, with the integration of technology into the classroom comes the love of learning is rekindled in many of these students lives. With the wide array of websites available online nowadays teachers have no excuse for not utilizing technology into the classroom. These websites can be used in the classroom and also at home. An excellent example is Wiki space which is a webpage where teachers can post their lectures and notes or where they can create an open forum for class discussion. As students are invited to this wiki-space they can edit and add to the discussion online. Students can create their own wikispace, which can greatly decrease stress when working on group projects. Teachers can build their own virtual classroom websites which can be used to as a means to communicate with, and make parents aware of the goings on in the classroom. Students can use these websites to access homework, and to contact their teachers. Through incorporating technology into the classroom and to use it as a form of communication with parents, colleagues, and students, teachers are preparing the students for life in the 21st century and ensuring that when they leave the classroom and enter the workforce they are prepared for the technological challenges that they will face them.

What Makes Advertising Effective

What Makes Advertising Effective The aim of this report is finding the most correct answer to the question: what makes advertising effective. This issue is essential because it is the key for achieving -or not- the goals pursued by every company that invests in advertising. The general question has been divided in three areas, depending on the type of consumers response that advertising aims to arouse: cognitive, affective or conative, according to the famous Hierarchy of Effects model proposed by Lavidge and Steiner in 1961. In addition, the report focuses on the role of Music in advertising, with the purpose to highlight how its use can help to achieve efficacy in advertising. Five recommendations are identified through the report. Advertisers should first choose the media mix able to reach as many consumers as possible from the target audience (Ogilvy, 1985). Using appealing creativity (Dahlen et Al, 2010) and increasing the frequency of the message (Pickton and Broderick, 2005) is required to pass successfully through all the selective phases of consumers influence process, in order to make them memorize the contents of advertising. Music can be very helpful both for gaining consumers attention and giving a mnemonic quality to the message (Sutherland, 2008). An effective way to build an emotional link with consumers is referring to common culture (Godin, 1999). Jingles are able to involve consumers, at the point that they can become part of consumers cultural background of people (Sutherland, 2008). It is necessary to understand how the purchasing decision is taken by consumers in order to effectively affect their behaviour; the FCB matrix by Vaughn (1986) identifies four types of purchasing process and suggests the quantity and quality of information to provide for each of them in order to have an impact on the decision making process. Since music sets up an entertainment mood, its use appears to be appropriate for the feel products and not for the think products (Arens et Al, 2011). As most of these factors refer to the ability of understanding consumers mind, the report has confirmed that psychology represents a basic support for marketing functions as the making of effective advertising (Foxall et Al, 1998). INTRODUCTION This paper aims to identify the factors able to make advertising effective. The research starts stating a basic condition then, since efficacy is the ability to bring about the intended result (Oxford dictionary, 2007), the report analyses which are the marketing objectives pursued by advertising. The Hierarchy of Effects Model proposed by Lavidge and Steiner (1961) is considered as pivotal in the communication process. People progressively express three kinds of response to a received message: cognitive, affective, conative (also known as the think-feel-do process). Accordingly, the report uses a tripartite approach in order to better isolate and identify the factors that make advertising successful whether the response sought from consumer is cognitive, affective or conative. The report then operates a specific analysis on the role of Music in advertising, showing how music can be a very useful tool to reach efficacy (Sutherland, 2008) for all the three pursued responses shown previously. Recommendations and Conclusions about the topic complete the analysis. Practical examples chosen among the most famous companies provide evidence to the theoretical analysis; further examples are reported in the appendices to enrich the content. This research has been performed through the method of the literary review: books, papers and articles of famous Marketers and Psychologists are used as sources. A Basic Condition Advertising is undoubtedly a central part of promotion, but compared to the 4 Ps of marketing mix theorized by McCartney (1960), it represents only an aspect of the marketing effort made by the company (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). To reach and maximize the efficacy of advertising, firms should develop a deep know-how of their market, becoming what Llambin (2008) calls market-driven companies. This is achievable only by large investments in market researches, in order to know as much as possible about consumers and competitors. As Cowles and Kiecker stated (1998), market research is important not only to identify the most profitable target segments, but also to develop a message content that is appealing to them, and to identify the most effective and efficient marketing communications mix elements and media. Companies have to focus all their functions to the market: only Market-driven companies will be really able to set the most effective advertising (Llambin, 2008). The HoE model: three responses to be aroused As advertising is a non-personal form of communication (Fill,2009), marketing can be supported by the studies on the communication process. Among them, this report focuses on the famous hierarchy of effects model proposed by Lavidge and Steiner (1961); when the advertising message reaches the consumer, following the steps of the well-known SMRC communication model (Berlo, 1960), the receiver responds by progressively undertaking three phases: the cognitive phase as first, then the affective and finally the conative. Specifically, consumers will pass through these sequential stages: Awareness, Knowledge, Liking, Preference, Conviction, Purchase. [Figure A] Figure A : Sequential stages of Lavidge and Steiner model (1961) Source: http://www.learnmarketing.net/Hierarchy%20Of%20Effects.jpg Using this tripartite approach, the marketing objectives become more definite and therefore it is possible to identify more precisely the key factors for achieving efficacy; firms should then set up a specific advertising campaign targeted for each of the three macro-responses they want to arouse in the audience (Lavidge and Steiner, 1961). The following three Mc Donalds adverts clearly show this differentiated approach. In the first one [Figure B], nothing but the apposition of the two logos (the wi-fi one made by chips) is used: since this ad wants to make the audience learn the service provided, it refers to the cognitive phase. https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyqcMp4AgZfGIOJ-Pi-1IuyYeSILwrHkTTkuExfEyzCe4SO5kfXkMP41vOY08u6zm5WnDR03Y4lK3Tc02kRtFYQROvCWk7h6cDpIZ6F5MLO0Hqh11ju1Xab_h7Ffzde1e4f8MENg2BsNQ/s400/Cool+and+Beautiful+McDonald%E2%80%99s+Advertising+10.jpg) Figure B. Source: https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyqcMp4AgZfGIOJ-Pi-1IuyYeSILwrHkTTkuExfEyzCe4SO5kfXkMP41vOY08u6zm5WnDR03Y4lK3Tc02kRtFYQROvCWk7h6cDpIZ6F5MLO0Hqh11ju1Xab_h7Ffzde1e4f8MENg2BsNQ/s400/Cool+and+Beautiful+McDonald%E2%80%99s+Advertising+10.jpg In the second one [Figure C], the baby approaching the hamburger evokes feelings of affection for the food offered by the company; an home atmosphere is aroused. Emotional persuasion is the first aim for the affective phase. http://www.breastfeedingsymbol.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2007/08/mcdonalds.jpg Figure C. Source: http://www.breastfeedingsymbol.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2007/08/mcdonalds.jpg In the third one [Figure D], the invitation to take an action is extremely clear: consumers should have breakfast at Mc Donalds on Mondays, convinced by the free coffee. This ad aims to induce a change in the consumers behaviour: it refers to the conative phase. http://www.mcdonaldsstl.com/images/FreeCoffeeMondays-graphic.jpg Figure D. Source: http://www.mcdonaldsstl.com/images/FreeCoffeeMondays-graphic.jpg The main limit of HoE is its rigidity: consumers do not always undertake these steps sequentially, because of their irrationality; however, the existence of these three kinds of responses is widely accepted also among the critics (Barry and Howard, 1990). Accordingly, it is possible to  reformulate the central question in a more detailed way: which elements are necessary in advertising, in order to improve the companys performance in brand awareness (1), in the affective relationship with the consumers (2), and in the sales (3)? 1 Cognitive response The goal of these campaigns is to ensure that customers are properly aware of the brand; making clear the brand positioning is the main aim (Egan, 2007). Reach is the first key factor. Pelsmacker (2007) defines it as the number or percentage of people who are expected to be exposed to the advertisers message during a specified period . Reach plays the either/or role in the SMRC process: if the company does not reach the consumers, no response can be aroused. Therefore, the choice of the most appropriate media mix to reach the target segments becomes crucial for the success of the advertising campaign (Ogilvy, 1985). According to the selective influence process theories, people play a very active role as receivers in the communication process (Karlz and Lazarsfeld, 1955). There are unconscious and social intervening variables which affect the final internalization of the message. Since only the memorized information is able to affect the consumers behaviour the ability to pass through the selective phases of the consumer influence process is the second key factor (Karlz and Lazarsfeld, 1955). To win the receivers attention, it is required to overtake what Wundt (1896) calls the absolute threshold, that is the minimum psychic intensity an individual needs for reacting to a stimulus. For this reason, the effort to provide appealing creativity to the advert gains great importance (Dahlen et Al, 2010). Since the traditional media today are overcrowded by adverts (Levinson, 2007), appealing creativity can make an advert emerge to the consumers eyes. A clear example can be represented by the winner of the Best Use of Blu Tac in a Shop Window Postcard Space category in the Chip Shop Awards 2012. Clearasil posted a completely and intensely white postcard: impossible not to see. Figure E. Source: http://www.chipshopawards.com/ Clearasil is a brand of beauty products against skin imperfections (www.clearasil.co.uk) Use of creativity can also have negative impacts: it is difficult to define the line between great effect and great scandal (Godin, 1999). [see Appendix I] In choosing how often to transmit the advertising message, psychology supports marketing once again (Foxall et Al, 1998). I.V. Pavlov developed the notion of conditioned reflex (1927): opposed to the innate reflex it is a learned reaction to a positive or negative stimulus. In marketing, this means that the repetition of a message will increase its understanding; thats why frequency plays a key role. Frequency measures the number of times, on average, that a member of the target audience is exposed to a message or, more accurately, to the media (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). Increasing the frequency helps making the advertise effective but, according to the Curve of Wundt (1896), if the intensity of the stimulus exceeds a certain limit it is even possible to arouse anxiety, nervousness and irritation in the receivers. 2 Affective response Here, the main goal is to create an affective link with consumers, in order to persuade them appreciating the brand and making a preference for it (Fill, 2009). The more the content of a message is associated to paradigmatic knowledge, the more immediate and simple is its decoding by the receiver (Grandori, 1999): thats why advertising should carry associations recalling to the common culture to be effective in building an emotional link with the audience (Godin, 1999). Among all the cultural aspects, political studies have shown that the more compelling ones are common roots ; common habits ; famous figures (Gabrielsen, 2010). The use of cultural associations can be clearly found in Chryslers spot for the launch of the new 200 model, shown during the 2011 edition of Super Bowl. The core of the message highlights the origin of the machine, manufactured in Detroit: (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) Thats who we are. Thats our story. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) Because when it comes to luxury, its as much about where its from, as who its for. Now were from America, but this isnt New York City, or the Windy city.(à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) And were certainly no ones Emerald city. This is the Motor city. And this is what we do. The new Chrysler 300 has arrived. Imported from Detroit. [see Appendix II] Casting famous figures (VIP) as testimonial can provide good advantages: a VIP well known among the target audience can better win consumers attention; it allows to make the advertising message more personal, exploiting the VIPs familiarity with the consumers ; people will associate the appreciated qualities of the VIP to the product. (Arens et Al, 2011). [see Appendix III] Another effective way to involve the audience is taking part at the big events widely enjoyed and cherished by people, as the recent Olympics in London 2012. [see Appendix IV] Thanks to these associations, every time that consumers get in touch with the reminded cultural aspect, they will also remember the linked brand (Godin, 1999).[see Appendix V] This cultural approach shows some limits. Since culture is a sphere of meanings related to the past, the new products which aim to highlight innovation as their core quality cant take the best benefits from cultural associations (Ogilvy, 1985). Moreover, relying on VIP means accepting the risk of linking to them the name of the brand also when something negative is referred to them (Arens et Al, 2011). [see Appendix VI] 3 Conative response In order to effectively affect consumers behaviour with advertising, it is necessary to understand how their decision making process works. The model developed by Richard Vaughn for Foote Cone and Belding in 1980, known as the FCB matrix, considers it as driven by two variables: the level of consumer involvement (high-low) and the type of approach to the purchase (rational-emotional). (McWilliam, 1997; Vaughn, 1980 and 1986). The result is the identification of 4 macro-type of purchasing process, each one requiring different kinds of information to be affected: differences are both in quantity high and detailed or low and summarized- and quality -emotional or rational of information. (Vaughn, 1986). In Figure F, some exemplar products are placed in the 4 quadrants of the FCB matrix. Figure F. Source: Vaugh, 1980 Therefore, advertising can be effective only if it provides the consumers with the kind of information they look for in their decision making process, this one being identified by the quadrant the product is placed in. (Vaughn, 1986). The analysis of 4 different decision making processes is now addressed, referring to the model of Vaughn (1986): High involvement / rational. People look for the real facts, they need to gain the confidence they are doing the right choice (e.g. Mortgage). The way to be effective is to highlight all the product competitive benefits as well as the company know-how, and to provide the consumers with positive feedbacks . [Figure G]http://www.okeefeestateagents.com/_microsites/paul_okeefe/docs/images/homepage/rightColAdvert/need-a-mortgage.jpg Figure G. Source: http://www.okeefeestateagents.com/_microsites/paul_okeefe/docs/images/homepage/rightColAdvert/need-a-mortgage.jpg High involvement / emotional. Consumers want to learn about and feel the experience (e.g. Holidays). Companies should provide content rich media with compelling personal feedbacks, music and everything else able to make the consumers taste the experience. [Figure H] Figure H. Source: www.adcracker.com Low involvement / rational. People usually buy by habit (e.g. toothpaste). Underlining the incentives to change habits as sale coupons can be effective. [Figure I]http://c3240dd96f54819fb6f2-90846526673b19d9a04c27097b58cb86.r6.cf2.rackcdn.com/2011/09/optic-white-coupon.jpg Figure I. Source: www.cuckooforcoupondeals.com Low involvement / emotional. People often looks for sensory or psychological gratification (e.g. Movies). Showing sensory rich imagery can be successful. [Figure J]http://www.filmjabber.com/movie-blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/11/the-eye-poster.jpg Figure J. Source: http://www.filmjabber.com/movie-blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/11/the-eye-poster.jpg The limit of the FCB matrix is the difficulty to plot the product in the right quadrant, because of the inconsistencies between consumers and companies perceptions of it (Dahlen et Al, 2010). Moreover, as marketing environment is rapidly changing, products and services can fast move from one coordinate to another in the brand image of consumers (Fill, 2009). The Role of Music in Advertising Music can be a very useful tool to reach efficacy in advertising, whether the aim is to arouse a cognitive, affective or conative response in the consumers (Sutherland, 2008). The analysis aims to show how the use of music can aid or hinder the effective factors identified in the general part. COGNITIVE PURPOSE Music can help to win consumers attention: reproducing a song well-known among the target audience or a catchy rhythm greatly helps to get its attentions (Sutherland, 2008). The use of creativity in music can be found in the production of jingles, where companies set their own words to Music. Jingles are among the best -and worst- ad messages produced. Done well, they can bring enormous success, well beyond the non-musical commercial. Done poorly, they can waste the advertising budget and annoy audiences beyond belief (Arens et Al, 2011). As an example, in the 1970s Coca-Cola was so successful with its jingle Id like to buy the world a Coke that it was then extended and released to become an international chart hit called Id like to Teach the World to Sing (Sutherland, 2008). Moreover, what Sutherland (2008) calls the three Rs rhyme, rhythm and repetition give words a mnemonic quality, making the message more catchy and enduring in memory. AFFECTIVE PURPOSE Research has shown that the positive mood created by music makes consumers more receptive to an ad message (Belch and Belch, 2009). When words are set to the music, a desire for repetition can be created: thats why jingles are able to involve consumers, at the point that they can become themselves part of the cultural background of people (Sutherland, 2008). A chart of the top 10 jingles of the century has been made, according to peoples preferences: a prove of the attachment consumers have towards them (Belch and Belch, 2009). Figure K. Source: Belch and Belch, 2009 The case of Oscar Mayers spots clearly shows the emotional power of jingles in advertising. [see Appendix VII] Jingles are used less frequently today, replaced by an increasing use of current or classic pop songs: in the age of the technologic way to live music companies must be careful not to appear old-fashionable while using jingles (Belch and Belch, 2009). CONATIVE PURPOSE Music can also affect the way people behave, but since it better vehicles an emotional message, it seems to be effective especially -if not only- with the feel products (Sutherland, 2008). A great example of how music can be focused on action is the jingle created by the pizza chain Pizza, Pizza in Toronto: the company put its phone number in the lyrics, so that Toronto residents could memorize it easily. [see Appendix VIII] On the other hand, music causes what Sutherland (2008) calls the wash-over effect: when we listen to lyrics, we process the message as an experience that we can enjoy or not rather than judging the reliability of its meaning. The entertainment mood set up by music is inappropriate when consumers want to focus on the rational information, as for think products (Arens et Al, 2011). As the analysis of consumers response to music in advertising carried by Oakes (2007) shows, reaching a congruity between music and advertising in mood, genre, image and tempo contributes to the efficacy of an advertisement by enhancing recall, brand attitude, affective response and purchase intention. Since the negotiation of the license rights often needs large sums, marketers should carefully decide if and in which way music can be coherent with the marketing campaign, in order to avoid an expensive disorientation of consumers(Belch and Belch, 2009). RECOMMENDATIONS As shown through the report, advertisers should first ascertain to find the media mix that will maximize the reach of the audience (Ogilvy, 1985). Passing successfully through all the selective phases of consumers influence process is necessary to make them memorize a message (Karlz and Lazarsfeld, 1955). Concretely, this can be achieved by using appealing creativity (Dahlen et Al, 2010) and by increasing the frequency of the message (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). The use of Music can be very effective both for winning consumers attention and adding a mnemonic quality to the message (Sutherland, 2008). When aiming to build an emotional link with consumers, a successful choice is including associations recalling to common culture in the message sent to consumers (Gabrielsen, 2010). Jingles can be such able to involve consumers, that they can become themselves part of the cultural background of people (Sutherland, 2008). To effectively affect consumers behaviour, advertisers must understand how the purchasing decision for their products is taken by consumers; the FCB matrix by Vaughn (1986) suggest the quantity and quality of information to provide for each of the 4 types of purchasing process identified by crossing the level of involvement (high or low) and the kind of approach (emotional or rational). Music can be effective for feel products, but not for think products, since it sets up an entertainment mood inappropriate for rational decisions (Arens et Al, 2011). The overall recommendation for companies is to consider advertising as a process that involves the entire business as connected with it by a close cause-effect relationship: when an advert is not effective, it can be the symptom that theres something wrong in the marketing decision making process, or it can be the cause leading to future problems in the relationship with the market (Llambin, 2008). CONCLUSIONS It has been shown how a tripartite approach to the central question which factors can make advertising effective? is able to better analyse the issue and to define an accurate answer. Since all the factors except the maximisation of Reach refer to the ability of reading consumers mind, the report has confirmed how psychology can be a great support for marketing functions and, specifically, for making advertising effective (Foxall et Al, 1998). Thats why Market-driven companies, which have developed a deep knowledge of their consumers thanks to large investments in market researches, have the concrete possibility to apply these factors in the most effective way (Llambin, 2008). APPENDICES As an example, the historical testimonial used by Danish Frisbee Sports Union for the 2012 campaign will be definitely able to catch consumers attention, but it can reasonably arouse perplexity and disgust in a high number of people. Source: http://www.chipshopawards.com/ Nestlà ¨ chose to set a totally VIP-focused campaign to promote Nespresso brand: George Clooney has being appeared in every adverts of the famous espresso machine, with the aim to take advantages from his style and world-wide popularity. Source of Image: http://www.generation-flux.com/images/Nespresso-site.jpg A great example is represented by the marketing campaigns of PG, created to promote their laundry products Ariel in UK and Tide in USA during the Olympics. The compelling references on the athletic competition were present in both the spots: Before the Gold, Silver, and Bronze, its the red, white and blue.At the Olympic Games, its not the color you go home with that matters, its the colors you came in. When colors mean this much, trust them to Ariel (UK)/ Tide (USA). The meaning of the final sentence Proud keeper of Our Countrys Colours was certainly influenced by the images of the athletes shown in the video: for Ariel, a high number of British participants ; for Tide, almost only American players. Sources: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DoF9DROHYnU Tide for USA; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jipn-MGg0DA Ariel for UK. A great example of the power of cultural associations can be found in politics. The ex-Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi, considered the biggest innovator in the Italian political marketing in a negative or positive way depending on the political conviction (Palmieri, 2012), named his first party Forza Italia (1994), that is the same slogan used by Italian people as an incitement for the national football team. The result was a widespread embarrassment (ibidem) when people not voting for Berlusconi wanted to support the football team, but they had to shout the name of his party: they could not manage not to think about this political association. Cirio is an Italian company founded in 1856 specialized in canned food, especially in tomato paste. (www.cirio.co.uk) Cirio managers werent happy to learn that their testimonial Gerard Depardieu was founded drunk and misbehaving on a plane just two weeks later the advertising campaign was launched. The spot is accessible here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ReGPNs-HfH0 The episode reported: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/celebritynews/8706992/Gerard-Depardieu-accused-of-urinating-on-floor-of-plane.html Oscar Mayer is a brand owned by Kraft Foods. At the end of last century the company held local auditions in search of American children to continue the 30-year tradition of singing the catchy bologna and wiener jingles: they were such known that Oscar Mayer decided to be self-referential in order to best cultivate the relationship with the consumers. Thompson, S. 1997. Promotions: Nostalgia Bolognese, Brandweek, April 14, 1997 Original videos are available here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rmPRHJd3uHI (Bologna); http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aNddW2xmZp8feature=related (Wieners) The example and the text of the jingle are reported in Sutherland (2008, p 122): nine-six-seven, eleven eleven / phone Pizza Pizza, hey hey hey!