Neurobiology Of Evil - Nature And Nurture - 1955 Words

Neurobiology of Evil - Nature and Nurture THE CONTROVERSY: Ever since Plato and Aristotle, Locke and Descartes, and Charles Darwin,the controversy of nature and nurture has been ageless, its debate still continuing on today. Likewise, the forces that produce those with antisocial behavior are still obscure to researchers; one end of the spectrum viewing the issue as largely the result of genetic or biological factors, whereas at the other end posit that it is entirely of social environment (Hare 165). There are many that are skeptic with the idea of genetic predisposition of evil - the idea that their own family with biologically innate risk factors for violence is indeed alarming, especially if nothing can be done about it. Some also worry that acknowledging such biological disabilities will result in a society that takes a soft approach to crime, holding no one accountable for his or her actions, furthermore using biology to stigmatize ostensibly innocent individuals (Raine). It is growing rather difficult, however, to avoid the mounting evidence. Advanced science can now utilize modern technology to distinguish brain anatomies of specific individuals that will grow up to express dangerously antisocial behavior. With each passing year, society is at the point where the genetic basis of criminal behavior is well established (Raine). But even if neurobiology is found to be the predominant factor in determining antisocial or even psychopathic behavior in a person,

Religion - The Opiate of the People Essay - 1352 Words

I’m not often fond of Marx, the poor fool never recognized the inherent problems of his rather incoherent and unrealistic philosophy, but, I do think that an intelligent man, no matter how deluded can occasionally hit on the right idea. What idea? Simple, â€Å"Die Religion ... ist das Opium des Volkes,† that is, Religion is the opiate of the (common) people. On this, there can be no question he is absolutely right, opiates and religion are one in the same. A man addicted to opiates finds his world more cheerful under the influence of the latex of poppies, sees value in life through the dreamy gaze of opium induced euphoria, and acts in a neurotic and delusional manner with his mind impaired in the opiate induced stupor he brings upon himself.†¦show more content†¦The Christian tries to force secular law to conform to the grotesque morality of the Old Testament and its vindictive and childish god, while praising the nihilistic slave morality of the New Testamen t, laboring endlessly so that rational man must live in a society governed by the most irrational and stupid of laws and customs drawn from the most irrational and contradictory mythological volume compiled by man. To the Christian, those who sin must be treated as criminals, and those who do not accept the morality of Christian neurosis should be forced to by the will of the majority. Otherwise perfectly rational positions, being pro-choice, for instance, are attacked not through logic, but through arguments formulated from a tome which to any rational person should appear no more valid than the Iliad. The Christian forces his Ten Commandments and Creation Science onto a secular nation through the majority of people (which means little when the majority of this country is immensely stupid and ignorant), in contravention of the Constitution. The Christian demands the criminalization of gambling, of drugs, of prostitution, it demands that crimes with no victim except their variant of Odin or Zeus be punished with mandatory minimum sentences. They cannot allow sin to exist in this world, for fear their deity will bring down his wrath upon those who permit it. This of course isShow MoreRelatedReligion Is The Opiate Of The People1566 Words   |  7 Pageswhile we question our existence and the deeper meaning of life. We have discovered that religion answers these disconcerting questions. From worldly tradition, we have learned that religion fills those empty gaps in places that we cannot answer our own questions. It creates hope and gives people a meaning and feeling of belonging. Carl Marx describes, â€Å"Religion is the opiate of the people.† It makes people forget about inequality and oppression. It is more than a practice or a belief. It isRead More Pass The Opium, Please Essay1016 Words   |  5 Pages Religion is said to be the opiate of the masses, and it is definitely a point of interest in George Orwells famous novel Animal Farm. In it, Orwell pointedly attacks religion in general and Christianity in particular through the use of a well placed symbolic bird by the name of Moses. Orwells stance is rather apparent as Moses darts about the farm scene conveying the duality of Christianity quite superbly. At the first mention of the raven Moses, one immediately gets the impression that he standsRead MoreMarx And Durkheim On Religion839 Words   |  4 PagesMarx and Durkheim on Religion SOC201 998036931 Kirsten Kelleher Both Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim formulate similar sociological theories regarding the epistemology and origin of religion and religious beliefs. Both thinkers acknowledge a necessary connection between community and religion. As antagonistic, functionalist thinkers, both Marx and Durkheim maintain that â€Å"God† or the â€Å"divine†, is merely a projection of human beings highest ideals and greatest characteristics creating a â€Å"God† like illusionRead MoreHow the Social Importance of Religion Has Receded with Modernity1617 Words   |  7 PagesReligion has always been of high social importance and influence within civilization and their society. This essay will argue that as modernity has progressed the social importance of religion has receded, but the gradient of this recession and by how much varies upon the society. Modernity typically refers to a â€Å"post-medieval historical period, one marked by the move from feudalism toward capitalism, indust rialization, secularization, rationalization, the nation-state and its constituent institutions†Read MoreKarl Marx And Max Weber1332 Words   |  6 Pagesfascinated by religion science as they talked about different religion in depth that exist on earth and various perspectives of well known people on the study of religion. I chose Karl Marx and Max Weber for my paper assignment. Two sociologists and philosophers have discussed their views on religion and its impact on society. Most of the Sociologist of that time wrote about the role of religion in society, Karl Marx and Max Weber observations are particularly relevant for our course. Religion is one ofRead MoreMarx Weber and Durkheim on Religion Essays1378 Words   |  6 PagesA religion can be seen as a unified system of beliefs and practices which are relative to sacred things and beliefs (Giddens 1972, p.224). It can shape ones thoughts and feelings and gives people a sense of hope and something to believe in. All three main sociologist writers Karl Marx, Max Weber and Emile Durkheim offer different perspectives on religion and how important it is to society. Some of the theorists chose to have a positive view whilst others argue the unimportance of religion. This essayRead More Marx’s Views on Religion vs. My Own Essay514 Words   |  3 PagesMarx’s Views on Religion vs. My Own Karl Marx wrote that religion was, â€Å"an opiate of the people.† Although those words were not published in The German Ideology, they best describe his various views on religion. Marx wrote that there was a social relationship between the upper class or bourgeoisie and religion. The upper class that owned the means of production used religion as a tool to keep the working class or proletariat, oppressed and poor. Marx criticized that religion had so many ulteriorRead MoreImmanuel Kant And Karl Marx1690 Words   |  7 Pages The works of German philosopher’s Immanuel Kant and Karl Marx have played significant roles in the development of different sects of philosophy and religion. Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Konigsberg, East Prussia, now presently Kaliningrad, to a devout, poverty-stricken family of eleven children. Through his works, it is evident that Kant was raised in the religious teachings and values of pietism as his theories show a heavy influence of his religious upbringing. Kant as a young boy was accustomedRead MoreThe Video Opiate Addiction : Understanding Replacement Therapy Essay952 Words   |  4 PagesIn the video Opiate Addiction: Understanding Replacement Therapy, Scott Farnum talks about methadone replacement therapy. There were many topics covered in this video and the topics were introduced in a psychoeducational format. The topics covered included a brief history opioids, brain chemistry, post acute withdrawal syndrome, abstinence based treatment programs verses harm reduction, and how an individual asses the damages of opioids on the brain. As a counselor in training, I found all the informationRead More Functionalist View on the Role and Functions of Religion in Society716 Words   |  3 PagesFunctionalist View on the Role and Functions of Religion in Society Assess the view that sociological arguments and evidence support the Functionalist view of the role and functions of religion in contemporary society. Functionalists believe that religion is a conservative force, and an institution which adds to the requirements of society. They say it ultimately operates as an agency of socialisation. Durkheim (1912) said that all societies are separated into

Experimental Evidence Business Plan Competition †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Experimental Evidence Business Plan Competition. Answer: Introduction: Bryman and Bell (2015) opine that it is of great essence for an investor to decide what investments to make and in which project. The success of investment comes if right amount of money is invested in a particular project. In this case, the four business projects are:- A coffee shop Excel Delivery solutions New business electric auto in Thailand I-claim technology software The total investment of the given four projects is $100,000. Therefore, the segment for the investment Accounting can be explained with the help of the following. From the above graph, it can be inferred that the business plan of the coffee shop will get the higher investment, followed by I-claim technology software, followed by Excel delivery solutions and lastly the business electric auto plan in Thailand. This is mainly because the coffee shop business has a universal appeal and can cater in all the markets (McKenzie 2015). Due to its large scale appeal, it requires a higher amount of investment. The coffee shop is mainly targeted in Chinese market and it also has a wide range of packaging ideas. Due to this reason, it requires 35 percent of the total investment. The second most investment will be given to the business plan of I-claim technology. This software has a unique concept and is capable of gaining a higher return on investment as well. In addition to this, this product depends on a differentiation strategy; therefore, it can easily create a niche market segment of customers. On the other hand, the business plans Excel Delivery solu tions and new business electric auto in Thailand will be given lesser preference. This is mainly because of the fact that from an investors point of view, it is of great essence to keep an eye on return on investment. Therefore, the first two business plans is expected to deliver more and on the other hand, it will cater a large section of customers and higher market segment. Due to this reason, a higher percent of the required investment of $100,000 will be given to the above two business plans in comparison to the other two. It can be also inferred that the business plan of the coffee shop will be cater in the Chinese market. It has been seen that the economy of China is one of the biggest economy of the world, therefore, it is also expected that the coffee shop will yield more revenue and profit. In this manner, the investment decision can be justified. Comparison and evaluation of the business plans The above four business plans can be compared with the help of their operating and business Accounting strategies. It can be inferred that the success of all the four business plans depends upon their effective implementation of their business and operating strategies. If their strategies is not effective enough, then, the entire business plan will be a huge failure. The main target market segment of the business plan of the coffee shop is the Chinese Market. The main core competency of the coffee shop is its packaging style and selling coffee products at cheaper rates than its global business competitor, Starbucks. The business opportunity of the coffee shop is huge and it will yield more return on investment due to its core competitiveness (McKenzie 2015). It is also expected that the business plan will reach its break-even point within a span of two years and it will give 20 percent return on investment within 3 years. This can be considered as a perfect investment both in short-term and long-term purpose. The given business plan of delivery solution is dependent on technology as it is a transport and logistics business. The main target of Excel Delivery solutions is to create a core competency in their logistics and operating system and is expected to grow based on this. The given business plan is expected to develop an effective yet simple sales and marketing strategy in order to cater new segment of customers (Schaper et al. 2014) It is expected that the organization will reach its break-even point within 3-4 years and it will grow in the long-term. The business opportunity in the electric automobile can also be considered as a profitable venture for any investor. Therefore, it is expected that the given business plan can gain revenue within 2-3 years. This is mainly because of the selected market, Thailand, where the growth opportunity is huge, keeping a long-term view. Therefore, an investor can invest a considerable amount in this business plan (Wild, Wild and Han 2014) The business plan of I-claim technology software can be considered as a niche market product. In addition to this, the marketing plan of this product is designed for a particular set of customers. Due to this reason, it is expected that the prices of the product will be huge and it can be termed as a high-street brand. The profit margin will be on the higher side, and so is the investment. It is also expected that the business plan will reach its break-even after 3-4 years and it will yield more profits after that. These are the main business organizations of the above four business plans. The investor will invest according to the feasibility of investment. References Bryman, A. and Bell, E., 2015. Accounting Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA. McKenzie, D.J., 2015. Identifying and spurring high-growth entrepreneurship: experimental evidence from a business plan competition. Browser Download This Paper. Schaper, M.T., Volery, T., Weber, P.C. and Gibson, B., 2014. Entrepreneurship and small business. Wild, J., Wild, K.L. and Han, J.C., 2014. International business. Pearson Education Limited.

Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte Analysis Essay Example For Students

Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte Analysis Essay Wuthering Heightsby Emily BronteFour main characters (andone-sentence description of each)1. Heathcliff He is a bitter mantormented by the loss of his love Catherine and the abuse of his stepbrother,Hindley. He gains the Earnshaw inheritance and sets out to ruin EdgarLinton. 2. Catherine Earnshaw She fallsin love with Heathcliff, marries Edgar Linton because of financial andsocial advantages and dies after giving birth to Catherine Linton. 3. Hindley Earnshaw He is the sonand heir to the Earnshaw inheritance but abuses Heathcliff and seeks todegrade Heathcliff for winning the love of Mr. Earnshaw. We will write a custom essay on Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte Analysis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now 4. Hareton Earnshaw He is the sonof Hindley, yet cared for by Heathcliff. In his plot to ruin Hindleyand Edgar, he becomes like Heathcliff but falls in love and marries CatherineLinton. Two minor characters1. Isabella Linton She is the naivesister of Edgar and the wife of Heathcliff but later runs off to Londonand remains in hiding after Heathcliff throws a knife at her. 2. Linton Heathcliff He was bornin London but his mother died and he was given to his Uncle, but Heathclifflater get custody of him and marries him off to Little Cathy. Three main settings1. Wuthering Heights It was oncethe estate of the Earnshaws but falls into the hands of Heathcliff andmirrors his cold and grim state of mind. 2. Thrushcross Grange It is theostentatious home of the Lintons and impresses Catherine and transformsher into a lady. 3. London Isabella Heathcliff runsthere after having a knife thrown at her head. There she gives birthto Linton Heathcliff. One paragraph plot outlineHeathcliff was a waif taken in byMr. Earnshaw and his household. He grows bitter as he grows olderfalling in love with and losing Catherine. He seeks to destroy Hindleyand Edgar Linton blaming them for losing Catherine. He believe thatHindley caused his loss of Catherine by degrading him. Through hermarriage to Edgar Linton, Catherine becomes introduced to a world of materialism. She dies and her death fuels Heathcliffs rage against Hindley and Edgar. However, soon after, Hindley also dies and the Earnshaw estate and Haretonfall into the hands of Heathcliff. Later, Heathcliff wins the custodyof his son, Linton. He forces Cathy to marry Linton and plans tosteal the Grange from Edgar through Linton. Both Linton and Edgardies and the Grange goes to Heathcliff who now owns both Wuthering Heightsand Thrushcross Grange. Heathcliff marries Hareton to Cathy tryingto make Hareton fit his image. Cathy is loving to Hareton and whenHeathcliff dies, both Thrushcross Grange and Wuthering Heights go to them. Two symbols and references1. Wuthering Heights This housesymbolizes anger, hatred and jealousy. As in the shown by the name,there is lot of tension within that house. The Heights mirrorthe conditions of its inhabitants, especially Hindley and Heathcliff. 2. Thrushcross Grange This housecontrasts with Wuthering Heights since it has the appearance one wouldexpect from a pleasing worldly lifestyle. This appearance of thishouse also symbolizes the feelings of the inhabitants. Like the house,the Lintons are materialistic and superficial. 3. Hareton and Cathy These twosymbolize Heathcliff and Catherine showing what they could have becomeif their situations were slightly different. Both couples live insimilar situations and allow for the comparison. Two or three sentenceson styleBronte write in a dreary, melancholy stylethat provides the dark atmosphere to the story. She write the bookmaking use of a frame since most of the story is conveyed through the narrationof Nelly. .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 , .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 .postImageUrl , .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 , .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1:hover , .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1:visited , .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1:active { border:0!important; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1:active , .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1 .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u1fbf584187e592c9beb4a547f1e264e1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Historical Essay The Bubonic PlagueOne or two sentences ondominant philosophyThis book contrasts the effects oflove and hate contrasting the two feelings. It shows hatred throughHeathcliff and displays how that leads to destruction while contrastingit with the love of Cathy and Hareton displaying how that builds. Four short quotationstypical of the work (include speaker, occasion)Cathy, do come. Oh do-once more!Oh! my hearts darling! hear me this time, Catherine, at last!Heathcliff calls for Catherine after Mr. Lockwood confessed he saw an apparitionoutside his window. Im trying to settle how I shall pay Hindleyback. I dont care how long I wait, if I can only do it at last. I hope he will not die before I do. Heathcliff swears revenge againstHindley after Hindley had locked Heathcliff in the attic. Here! and here! replied Catherine,striking one hand on her forehead and the other on her breast, in whichever place the soul lives. In my soul and in my heart, Im convincedIm wrong! Catherine acknowledges that her marriage to Edgar cannotbe one of love because she knows that Heathcliff is her true love. Is Mr. Heathcliff a man? If so,is he mad? And if not, is he a devil? Isabella writes to Ellen.

Group Behavior on Individual Workers †Psychology Essay

Group Behavior on Individual Workers – Psychology Essay Free Online Research Papers Group Behavior on Individual Workers Psychology Essay How can the existence of a group affect the behavior of the individual worker? Groups are found in all situations inside and outside the working environment, and play a large part in the everyday working of companies. If management wish to ensure they can influence the behavior of their employees, then they must be aware of and understand how groups work and what kind of impact they can have if not handled well. According to Mullins (2002) â€Å"Groups are a characteristic of all social situations and almost everyone in an organisation will be a member of one or more groups.† A popular definition of a group has been given in psychological terms by Schein (1988). He defines a group as â€Å"any number of people who (1) interact with one another; (2) are psychologically aware of one another; and (3) perceive themselves to be a group.† Another definition, provided by Adair (1986), is that a group is â€Å"a collection of people who share most, if not all, of the following characteristics: a definable membership; group consciousness; a sense of shared purpose; interdependence; interaction; and ability to act in a unitary manner.† There are a number of different types of group, whi ch can be classified under the following terms: primary group; secondary group; formal group; informal group; reference group; large group and; small group. Within primary groups each member will tend to know all of the other members and will interact on a faces of secondary groups may include department stores or factories, where the primary groups are individual departments or sections. Both primary and secondary groups can be perceived as formal or informal. It is stated by Mullins (2002) that â€Å"Formal groups are created to achieve specific organizational objectives and are concerned with the co-ordination of work activities† and that â€Å"Informal groups are based more on personal relationships and agreement of group members than on define role relationships. They serve to satisfy psychological and social needs not related necessarily to the tasks to be undertaken†. Reference groups are groups, which a person may identify with or aspire to, but they may never meet that group. This type of group can influence people who may not in any clear sense be a member of that group. Reference groups can also be either ascribed, of which membership is automatic, or acquired, where membership is voluntary. A board of directors within a company is an example of a reference group to an employee who wishes to advance their career within that company. When referring to the size of group, it is generally thought that if it exceeds a certain number of members its dynamic forces will lose much of their intensity. Depending on the context of the group that number may vary, but the usual dividing line between small and large groups is between fifteen and twenty. Four main phases of development of groups have been identified by Tucker (1965). These are forming, storming, norming and performing. The forming stage is the initial formation, where a number of individuals are brought together who identify the purpose of the group, what the rules of the group should be and what behavior is acceptable from members. During this stage there is thought given and importance placed on hierarchical structure and appointing a leader. It is likely that members will feel some anxiety as each member tries to make an impression and test each other, making their mark within the group. The storming stage is the second stage, during which the members of the group will get to know each other to a greater extent, and will be more likely to air their views more openly and even forcefully. Rebellion may be present against the leader of the group, with members resisting control exerted by others within the group, and conflicts and hostility arising. According to Mullins (2002) â€Å"The storming stage is important because, if successful, there will be discussions on reforming arrangements for the working and co-operation of the group, and agreement on more meaningful structures and procedures.† The third stage is the norming stage. During the norming stage cohesion develops between the group members and conflict and hostility begins to be overcome. Mullins (2002) states â€Å"The norming stage is important in establishing the need for members to co-operate in order to plan, agree standards of performance and fulfill the purpose of the group. This cooperation and adherence to group norms can work against effective organizational performance. It may be remembered, for example, that, in the bank wiring room experiment of the Hawthorne studies, group norms imposed a restriction on the level of output of the workers.† The Hawthorne studies will be mentioned later in this essay. The fourth stage of the group development is the performing stage, which will only be reached if the preceding three stages have been completed successfully. During this stage the group should be able to work effectively as a team, with optimum cohesiveness and flexible and functional roles. The energy, which was previously used through resisting demands and conflicting opinions, is now used to work together effectively. At this stage the group will perform their best work, concentrating on the common goals. Different types of groups may spend different amounts of time on each stage, with some groups never reaching the final stages. The personality and levels of dominance of each member may play a large part in the failure or success of the group and its ability to progress through the four stages mentioned above. Also, as time goes by and changes occur, such as new members joining the group or old members leaving, the group may re-enter the cycle and begin the development process all over again. In order to find out if the group members are working together effectively personality wise then the work of Jacob Moreno and his socio-grams can be useful if utilized correctly. Obviously there must be a successful working relationship between group members in order for them to succeed, but as well as having people with corresponding knowledg e and skills, it must be ensured that the team members are capable of dealing with each other on a personal and social level. If members are too dissimilar personality wise, then some members may clash, or others may feel left out, to the detriment of the group’s productivity and morale. Jacob Moreno developed socio-metry, which is the study of relationships within a group of people as a method of indicating group members’ feelings of acceptance or rejection. He began his research by asking people who their friends were and he explored the ways in which the relationships they had with others could be both limitations and opportunities for action as well as for their psychological behavior. Moreno invented socio-grams, which are the way in which the patterns of interpersonal relationships, which are derived from sociometry, are illustrated in diagrammatical form. Sociograms will show the choices and preferences, likes or dislikes, and the interactions between group memb ers, as well as displaying the structure of the group and recording how often the members are in contact with each other and for how long. Each member of the group will be asked to rate the other members in terms of a given characteristic. The questions asked could be relating to either work or social activities, for example one question could ask who they would most or least prefer as a colleague, and another may ask who they may choose to go on holiday with, and who would they choose not to go with. Some socio-grams require only positive answers, while others take into account positive and negative answers. When results are illustrated in diagrammatical form there is a clear visual description of the sociometric structure of the group, so it can be easily seen where cliques exist, or which members are popular or isolated, or those who act as links. There are several typical relationship structures, or sociometric representations, which can be seen in most socio-grams. Some of thes e are the star, which is the most popular member, the pair or mutual pair, a chain structure that is typical with most socio-grams and links the members through others, and a triangle, which shows that there is a clique within the group. As mentioned above, it is important that the group members get along with each other if the group is to succeed. If there are too many opposing personalities, or there are too many people with the same type of personality. For example of there are two or three members vying for the leadership role then they will be too busy competing for control over the group to perform at an acceptable level. If some members of the group form a clique, leaving individual members in isolation then there may be a decline in performance, as communication and group harmony will not be at the optimum level for maximum effective performance. Also, if the group is not communicating or getting along, they are unlikely to reach the final stages of group development as iden tified by Tucker (1965) which is mentioned earlier in this essay. The structuring of communication channels holds influence over the degree to which members of a group interact with each other. Levels of satisfaction felt by individual group members as well as group performance levels are affected by these interactions also. Dr Janet Bavelas researches communication networks within groups, to show who communicates with whom in a group and how the group structure can affect the speed of communication. The research by Bavelas (1948) and others such as Leavitt (1951) resulted in a series of communication networks being designed, which were based on groups consisting of five members who were engaged in a number of tasks. These members were only allowed to communicate with each other via written notes, and they were not always permitted to communicate with all other members. The five main types of communication network are the wheel, which may also be called the star, the circle, the all -channel, which is also referred to as the common, y, and chains. The wheel is the most centralized of the networks, and is therefore the most efficient for simple tasks. Using this network there will be fewer mistakes s there are fewer information flows, resulting in problems being solved more quickly. This method becomes less suitable however, as the problems become more complicated and the link person who is at the center of the network, and therefore perceived as leader of the group and co-coordinator of group tasks, has to cope with more demands. The link person will generally experience a higher level of satisfaction than the members on the periphery of the structure. The circle network is more decentralized and overall it is a less efficient method. Using this method tends to result in slow and erratic performance, with the group being less organized with low leadership predictability, as there is not one set link person. However, this method can be quicker than the centraliz ed methods at solving more complex problems and more effective and efficient at coping with changes and new tasks. All members will tend to feel the same level of job satisfaction using this method, as there is no link person to be perceived as leader, and every member will be involved equally in decision-making. The all-channel network is another decentralized network, which involves full participation and discussion, and appears to work most effectively when all members of the group are required to interact to a high degree with each other in order to solve the problems they are faced with. As with all decentralized networks there is low leadership predictability and equally high satisfaction for all members, although this type of network may not withstand much pressure, under which it may either disintegrate or be reformed into a wheel network. ‘Y’ or chain networks, like the wheel structure, may be more suited to simple problem-solving tasks, as they require less in teraction between group members. These networks are slightly more centralized, as information has a predetermined channel along which to flow, and leadership predictability is between that of the most centralized and decentralized networks. The group members’ satisfaction levels will be low to moderate using this network. According to Mullins (2002) â€Å"Findings from these studies indicate that the greater the interconnectedness of the network, the higher the general level of satisfaction of members in the group. Groups that were allowed to establish their own communication networks, and those who did so with the minimum of links, took less time to solve their tasks.† Norms, as defined by Jones and Gerard (1967) are â€Å"Expected modes of behavior and beliefs that are established either formally or informally by the group†¦Norms guide behavior and facilitate interaction by specifying the kinds of reactions expected or acceptable in a particular situation†. Taking this definition into account it is therefore reasonable to assume that group behavior can be constrained by some standards and expectations set. In 1935 Muzafer Sherif first published his study, which set his subjects a simple perceptual task, to be completed first by individuals, and then by small groups. The judgments made and behavior shown by the individuals was different to those made when the groups were involved and allowed to exchange information on judgments. It was shown that where group norms emerged these were used by the group members when later tested individually, indicating that that group norms become relatively permanent, although few of the subjects were consciously aware that their judgments had been influenced by the others in the group. The concept of norms is important when studying conformity and deviance, which is discussed below in terms of studies by Asch (1956) Asch had nine volunteers to take part in what they understood to be a perception expe riment. The task they were given was to judge which of three lines of different length were the same length as the standard line. The answer in all cases was obvious. When each subject was alone, neither of them made mistakes, however on certain trials one subject was asked to give his answer after a unanimously false majority, who chose an obviously false answer. In the results of the experiments thirty two per cent of all of the judgments were wrong, thirty three of the subjects conformed on more than half of the trials, and only twenty five per cent of the subjects were unaffected by the group pressure. Very few of the subjects later admitted to disliking the idea of contradicting the group. Through his studies Asch also noted that the higher the number of members in the group, the higher the level of conformity. One of the main reasons that people in groups conform can be to enable decisions to be made. This is also the case where deviance is concerned. People may question the f irst suggestions of the group so that better decisions can be reached, as it is doubtful that the first suggestion will be the best one. However, deviance can lead to conflict within groups. This conflict can either be constructive, where group members carefully weigh the strengths and weaknesses of proposals, or destructive conflict which occurs when members do not have the best interest of the group in mind, such as during a power struggle or personality dispute. If groups have effective structures and communication strategies, then they will be a success, and being part of a successful group will benefit individuals in terms of morale, as their social motives, such as their needs for security, friendship and belonging. The organization will benefit through its profit levels and through low staff turnover and customer complaints if the groups in place within the company. Also, if the groups within the company are operating efficiently, then Gestalt’s Principle of Synergy wi ll operate. The Oxford Dictionary definition of synergy is â€Å"The interaction or cooperation of two or more organizations, substances, or other agents to produce a combined effect greater than the sum of their separate effects†. This is the basis of the principle of synergy, where if the group is effective in its workings, then its productivity and worth as a group is greater than each individual group member could achieve when working on their own. However this theory can also work in reverse; if the group were not working effectively, then the productivity levels would be greater if each person was working on an individual level. This is particularly illustrated by the findings of the Hawthorne experiments, which are explained below. It sometimes occurs that group membership can have a negative effect on productivity, which is clearly illustrated in the Hawthorne experiments, which were carried out at the Western Electric Company in America. One of these experiments cons isted of a group of fourteen men being observed while working in the bank wiring room. These men formed their own cliques with members consenting to natural leaders emerging. Despite the fact that management had introduced a financial incentive scheme which allowed the men to receive more money if they produced more work, the group decided that a fair level of output was six thousand units per day, although they were able to produce much more. The group placed pressure on individual workers, which was stronger than the appeal of the financial incentive scheme. The work group developed their own set of norms relating to what they considered to be proper group behavior. These were that group members should not be ‘rate busters’, ‘chisellers’, ‘squealers’, or ‘officious’. A ‘rate-buster’ was someone who had a rate of output that the group considered too high according to the level they had set for combined output. A †˜chiseller’ was someone whose production levels were too low compared with the other group members. To avoid being thought of as a ‘squealer’ the members were not allowed to say anything to the manager or supervisor which might harm the other group members, and being ‘officious’ would be someone who had authority over the other members taking advantage of this seniority or distancing themselves socially from the group because of their seniority. The group had developed its own range of sanctions in case any members did not conform to the norms that had been set. These sanctions included damaging completed work, hiding tools, sarcasm, playing pranks on inspectors, and ostracizing the members who refused to conform. They also made threats of physical violence, with the group also developing a system to punish offenders by striking a hard blow on the upper part of the arm, which they called ‘binging’. This method was also used as a means t o control conflict within the group. The group also decided that instead of allowing their supervisor to report their individual daily production figures, they did the reporting themselves, which the supervisor consented to in order to keep in the groups favor. It is apparent from the content of this essay that groups can have either a positive or a negative effect on individuals, whether relating to their production or on a personal level. Individuals who feel they have to conform to group norms may feel a sense of belonging within the group, and if the group norms are demanding that the group work effectively and fairly then they will feel motivated also. However, f some individuals are feeling bullied into following unacceptable norms, then their work will suffer as will their self-esteem and feeling of worth. This will inevitably lead to poor production and staff turnover levels increasing. Organizations should pay careful attention to the personality types of the individuals th ey wish to place together in a team to avoid conflict and to ensure the group performs effectively. Social Network Analysis: A Handbook. John Scott (1996) Management and Organizational Behavior Mullins (2002) Foundations of Social Psychology Jones and Gerard (1967) Leadership in Group Settings The definition of a small group is a group having at least three and no more than fifteen members. At least three members are necessary to keep the group from being two of the same, and a maximum of fifteen members is important to avoid inhibition of the group members’ ability to freely communicate with fellow group members. (Effective Group Discussion 2001) It is necessary for the group to have a common purpose or goal in order to bring the group together and help the group to avoid conflict and tension. Small group communication is an important part of everyday life. We are all involved in some type of small group in some way. In all aspects of the dynamics of a small group, this is a perfect example of how important communication is. According to Merriam-Websters Dictionary online, Group dynamics is the interacting forces within a small human group. (www.merriam-webster.com , 2000) It includes the sociological study of these forces. The term was first introduced in the U.S. by the German-American psychologist Kurt Lewin. One of his findings was that group behavior affects many aspects of life. Group dynamics is concerned with the structure and functioning of groups and with the types of roles played by members. Roles are flexible and may change with changing goals or activities. The study of group dynamics is important in order to understand and facilitate this movement so that it will be productive and beneficial to society. â€Å"The group seems to have developed effective mechanisms to control the disruptive rising of conflicts and the ability to enhance more harmonic relationships, heightening the original good characteristics and sharing a common ideal of social harmony.† (The dynamics and the interpersonal and interpersonal relations within an isolated group in extreme environments 2000) In the following paragraphs, information and examples is presented on how groups form, how they are motivated, and how they can be put into two distinct classifications. Groups are caused by various factors, but are broken up into two distinct categories, voluntary groups and involuntary groups. Each group has many separate categories that can be explored. However, the difference between voluntary and involuntary groups will be exploited first. Voluntary groups are those in which an individual chooses to become a part of such as: hobbies, political action, social consciousness, racial rights or special interest groups. People become members of these groups to feel accepted in society. Sometimes these groups cause hatred and conflict amongst other groups, yet members remain because they feel their cause is just. On the other hand, involuntary groups are compulsory in that the members have no choice in their formation. (Leadership Emergence in Autonomous Work Teams 1999) For instance, a person may have a job in which they have been assigned to a group to work out a difficult issue. In this group a supervis or chooses a select few to research a component and provide solutions to better improve the efficiency. The members did not choose to be a part of the group. They were simply appointed based on a number of factors the supervisor found important to solving the issue at hand. Whatever the reason a group may form, they all have similar workings. Every group has leaders and followers. Directions, goals, and requirements are defined and at some point in time the behavior of the group is formed. The group sets goals to achieve an acceptable outcome within the scope of the group. It then organizes itself to obtain the outcome as easily as possible. Over a period of time the members may even become dependent upon one another to the point that they may feel lost without the group and feel inadequate. These groups can be categorized into two distinct categories; formal and informal. Formal groups include quality circles, decision making meetings, orientations, training, department meetings, a dvisory councils and sales meetings, to name a few. (Leaderships and innovations among teams 1997) Informal groups include social activities outside the office, luncheons, coffee breaks, informal meetings, retreats and gripe sessions. These discussion encounters often provide a platform for individuals to voice their opinions on a subject or to pass on information they have received. Both formal and informal groups have a synergistic effect, strengthen an organization. Every one of these groups are motivated to complete their cause. The motivation is generally driven by one or a few individuals that are outgoing and have the ability to lead a group with total confidence given by the other members. But, what exactly is â€Å"leadership†. According to our context, leadership can be defined as the â€Å"interpersonal influence† or human communication that modifies, directs, guides, and controls others in such a way as to obtain their willing obedience, confidence, respect and loyal cooperation in accomplishment of an objective. (Effective Group Discussion 2001) Leaders are not born, sure there are some gifts-traits-attributes, natural endowments that affect relative abilities, but they are not born, they are made. Any reasonably intelligent person with enough forcefulness to develop his/her ability to inspire others to follow him can earn leadership status. Remember that we have both formal and informal leaders. Being a Captain /Sergeant doesn’t make you a leader. J Patrick Dobel refers to classic leadership theory because it describes an approach to understanding leadership that by and large is out of style. Nonetheless it is clear that one can learn a great deal by studying the important personal ingredients in the leadership equation. (Political prudence and the ethics of leadership 1998) Studying the traits of great leaders became unpopular because it was and is associated with the â€Å"great man† theory of leadership. This approa ch was espoused in the 19th. and early 20th centuries, and asserted the leadership qualities are largely inherited. This was called â€Å"trait theory.† Researchers such as Mann and Stodgill found no consistent correlate between particular traits and leadership. Later research, particularly more recent and more sophisticated work has found a consistent and strong relationship between certain traits and leadership. (Leadership Emergence in Autonomous Work Teams 1999) Possessing these core traits simply makes it more likely that a person will take the appropriate action leading to leadership success. What is the nature of leadership? Leadership is an art form in that is an expression of the individual within the social and environmental context. Leadership also reflects the individual’s personality. It can also be learned; you may have a talent for it, you may not, either way, anyone can still become an effective leader. Through science, we can study the elements of lead ership and provide valuable understanding into its nature. This enables us to determine where to focus our leadership skills and abilities, as well as measure to some extent, our effectiveness. Many people believe that there is one type of leadership that is most effective, and if they can only develop that style, they would be effective as a leader. (Leadership Emergence in Autonomous Work Teams 1999) Some leaders have one style, and honestly believe that it is best to stick with what comes naturally. As with any art form, one has a number of tools at one’s disposal. Take for example the ability to listen and the listening effectiveness of the group members. A good leader is supposed to always be an active listener. Active listening shows that the leader cares, is interested and wants to be involved, enabling the leader to benefit from the experience. Listening skills are â€Å"far superior† in leaders, compared to all the other members of the group. (Examining the Re lationship Between Listening Effectiveness and Leadership Emergence 1998) The primary objective of a leader would be to adapt the principles of listening into their own life. If the leader is not a good listener, then he/she should learn how to really listen. In addition to listening and carefully understanding what a team member is saying, a leader should also make sure that every team member gets the leaders undivided attention. Unfortunately, as a listener, leaders have their own problems to face with. Listeners frequently have too many sound and visual signals reaching them at the same time. It is difficult for the listener to pay attention to multiple speakers all at once. Also, there could be a number of other problems the leader could be facing in their own life. The leader as a listener will never listen with understanding until other matters are forgotten for the moment and attention is given to the speaker. Another problem involved with listening is the leader not being ab le to understand the words being spoken. Hearing what is being spoken is just a part of listening, but understanding some of the words could be tricky sometimes. To avoid problems involving listening, the listener should use good eye contact so that he/she can concentrate on the particular speaker. That helps the listener pay attention on the subject too. Leader should also learn the meaning of the words the speaker is using and if he is unable to understand, he needs to ask questions. This also lets the speaker know that the listener is unable to understand and the listener is paying attention. These are signs of effective communication It is critical that good group leaders display the ability to effectively communicate with their associates and subordinates as well as train and encourages others to demonstrate those same communication skills. By doing so, they will promote an efficient working environment for solving tasks. The first challenge in effectively communicating with ot her people understands other different people. Because everyone is different from one another, the communication barriers start to appear. People are already facing differences from many levels of society. And with every new group that enters into the society, there are still the cultural differences such as traditions, beliefs, and expectations that are thrown into the mix as well. All of this, as well as many other issues only further complicates the task of achieving effective group communications. Perhaps the most obvious difference in the current group environment is the difference of the sex. (Are We Still Stereotyping Leadership 1997) Women possess a tendency to be more subtle or convincing rather than shouting out demands. Studies have shown that women are more likely to construct their requests in the form of suggestions or leading questions rather than be more direct. The conflict is evident if one considers the fact that males possess the complete opposite tendency. Men a re more â€Å"masculine† and are often more direct and to the point. These two contrasting different can cause lots of misunderstandings of all sorts. Women also do not hesitate to mix business with personal talk where men are more anxious to get to the details of the business at hand. For women this seems to be a double-edged sword. On the one hand, the personal talk brings down some barriers and lets each one get to know the other so everyone is comfortable. This works in their favor in situations where they are meeting a group or individual for the first time. But on the other hand, after they become acquainted, they may have trouble separating their personal feelings and allowing them to enter into their business talk as well as their daily business activities. These types of preconceived notions are also present for every race and culture on the planet and they differ from culture to culture for each other. It is very difficult but even more important for today leaders t o put these preconceived notions to rest. One must remember that just because a person looks like Chinese, that it is possible that they have never even been to China. If this is true, they may be offended if someone was to treat them noticeably different or assume that they did not know how to do something. Even though a person has not told these thoughts, their actions can communicate these thoughts just as effectively. This is just one of the many types of subtle communication in which all people notice. It is imperative that people treat others based on merit rather than assumptions made on their looks or backgrounds. A multicultural environment is an asset only if each individual is treated equally and fair as the others. As team members witness their leader treating everyone with equality and fairness, they will be more inclined to emulate these actions with one another. (Leadership and Innovation Among Teams 1997) This will in turn help the group to value diversity and develo p creative problem solving skills. As conditions and situations change, leaders need to change their styles of leadership. The challenge of the leader is not to follow one leadership style all the time, but to use the leadership style needed by his followers. Leaders should maintain the power or influence of their offices by being kind and knowledgeable. The primary objective of being the leader would be to recognize the qualities necessary for a leader to be successful. Leader should be able to recognize various leadership styles and understand when each would be appropriate. Sometimes a leader will have to follow their group member and in such situations the good leader will appreciate the leadership, while serving the role of a follower. Leaders often have trouble deciding what leadership style to be used at what given instance. Another problem with leaders is that some leaders tend to follow the same leadership principles all the time and this is not a good idea to tackle specia l situations. The leader must not consider himself locked into a style of leadership with any individual or group. To avoid problems leaders should always act accordingly and change leadership skills depending on the situation and need. At the same time leader should be confident enough to be able to deal with the new skills. Every group needs a leader and the groups performance depends on the leader either directly or indirectly. The behavior as a manager has a direct impact on staff performance, productivity, satisfaction, and turnover. Proper Leadership skills are highly essential for a manager to make his/her group successful. The leadership principles mentioned in this paper are just a simple guideline for leaders to follow; however, a good leader does not require any guidelines. A good leader inherits leadership qualities by inheritance of leadership abilities and characteristics from their own life. But in small group setting, a good leader doesn’t know that he has the ability to use these characteristics. Not until the others members give that person a chance to â€Å"emerge† as a leader. (Leadership Emergence in Autonomous Work Teams 1999) Leader emergence occurs in autonomous, or leaderless, work groups when one members of that group exerts â€Å"significant influence over the other members of the group although no formal authority has been vested in that person.†(Leadership Emergence in Autonomous Work Teams 1999) Such people emerge from the autonomous group when members sense an urgency, time constraint, to produce out put. Since the group started off leaderless and is now forced to produce output, the emergent leader will take charge with out developing trust, or respect for others and others feelings. When the work group send a peer expectations for leadership, through a negotiated process the emerging leader will reinforce those expectations by exhibiting effective leadership behavior, but only if he/she is willing and capab le of doing the job. In conclusion, there are certain laws of leadership that determine one’s success in leading. If you violate or ignore them, then you will severely limit your effectiveness as a leader. These laws are the foundation of leadership, yet you will not find them in any university curriculum. These principles are best learned from experience. Once you learn the principles, you must consistently practice and apply them to your situation. True leadership cannot be awarded, appointed, or assigned. It comes only from influence, and that can’t be mandated; it must be earned. Leadership is about influencing people to follow, while management focuses on maintaining systems and processes. The best way to test whether a person can lead rather than just manage is to ask him to create positive change. Managers can maintain direction, but they can’t change it. Hard work is required to gain influence in any organization and to earn the right to become the leade r. If you can’t influence others, they won’t follow you. And if they won’t follow, you’re not a leader. Leadership is developed daily, not in a day. To be an effective leader you need followers, and that always requires the development of relationships – the deeper the relationships, the stronger the potential for leadership. William, J.B. William, J.B. (1998). Leadership and innovations among teams. J Patrick Dobel, â€Å"Political Prudence and the Ethics of Leadership,† Small Group Research 58, no.1 (Jan/Feb 1998): 74-81 Judith A Kolb, â€Å"Are We Still Stereotyping Leadership,† Small Group Research 28, no.3 (Aug 1997): 370-393 Simon Taggar, Rick Hackett, Sudhir Saha, â€Å"Leadership in Autonomous Work Teams,† Personnel Psychology 52, no.3-4 (Autumn 1999): 899-926 Scott D Johnson, Curt Bechler, â€Å"Examining the Relationship Between Listening Effectiveness and Leadership Emergence,† Small Group Research 29, no.4 (Aug1998): 452-471 Antonio Peri, Marta Barbarito, Matilde Barattoni, Ada Abraham, â€Å"The Dynamics and the Interpersonal Relations† Small Group Research 31, no.3 (June 2000): 251-274 WWW.merriam-webster.com , visited 12/04/01 John K Brilhart, Gloria J. Galanes, Katherine Adams, Effective Group Discussion: Theory and Practice (New York, NY: The McGraw Hill Press 2001), 8-9, 191 Research Papers on Group Behavior on Individual Workers - Psychology EssayThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseResearch Process Part OneEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenWhere Wild and West MeetInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married Males19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraThe Fifth HorsemanRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andStandardized TestingThree Concepts of Psychodynamic

Business-Technology Alignment - Smart Custom Writing Samples

Business-Technology Alignment - Smart Custom Writing Innovative processThe innovative process is important for companies that want to realize their objective in the competitive and consumer driven market. Hassell (2003) says that the systems used in the innovative process are the most complex both in technical and social terms. Hassell (2003) says that the most commonly used model of the innovation process is the liner model. The four phases include research, development, evaluation or demonstration, and deployment phases. The first phase is known as the research phase. Starbuck will embark on researching on the problem and inventing a solution conceptually and not physically. Shapiro (2002) says that the purpose of this step is to learn how to use data more flexibly and it will help the team at Starbuck to create and find new perspectives on everyday facts and figures as far as their products are concerned.   During this phase the team involved in the innovation process will explore relationships and patterns between the existing products in order to open the door to truly revolutionary insights. Schwartz (2006) says that despite how the innovation is started the problem needs a proper description. Starbuck as a company should involve more people in order to come up with detailed and explicit representation of the problem. The second phase will involve development of a viable prototype of a solution or product protype. During this step Hassell (2003) says that once an invention is found in the first phase through research and brain-storming, it is refined and perfected through the development process. The team at Starbuck will develop a small scale or prototype product that provides a proof of concept that the innovation is technologically sound. In addition, Shapiro (2002) argues that â€Å"during the development phase the company will definitely figure out what is possible and not what would be the right solution† (30). In addition Schwartz (2006) says that during this phase a conceptual model for the implementation is developed which describes its planned solution on a conceptual level. The team at Starbuck will take into consideration the description, the problem and the idea as input. The third phase of the innovative process is the demonstration phase. Hassell (2003) says that â€Å"this phase involves coming up with a full scale prototype to prove not only the innovation’s technical viability but also that it meets the required safety standards, it is appealing to the consumer and can be produced at a reasonable cost† (p. 12). The company (Starbuck) will use this step to carry out an evaluation through independent evaluation and testing organizations which test the product to certify that it is safe and effective. According to Schwartz (2006) the evaluation phase tests the results produced during the innovation process. During this phase Starbuck will undertake a careful planning of the experimental design and analysis to make sure that there is a representative and valid results for the new product. The fourth phase of the innovative process entails deployment of the product. Hassell (2003) says that sometimes this phase is known as diffusion, commercialization, or marketing stage. Hassell indicated that during this phase Starbuck will work towards increasing the production or manufacture of the innovation and making it commercially available (2003). It is important to note that the outcome and success of this phase depends heavily on consumer demand, the cost of the product, regulatory acceptance, marketing efforts, and the cost and performance of competing products among other considerations (Hassell, 2003). Starbuck will in last phase take the newly developed product and will try to market it as profitable as possible or a new process is implemented and integrated into the operational workflow for its improvement and to obtain more cost effective performance (Schwartz, 2006). The company will also explore the technological domain in which it can effectively facilitate new insights and methodologies to be disseminated to the company’s areas of interest as well as the public at large. In conclusion, the above four phases will help Starbuck to go through the innovative process and come up with the required product. The innovative process will determine how the company edges its competitors in the domain of technological advancement and the development of new products that meet the customer needs. The research phase should involve brainstorming sessions as well as intensive research so as to determine what the market demands. After the development phase Starbuck should then carry out a thorough evaluation and then deployment to ensure that the product meets the required standards and demands of the consumers.    References Hassell, S. (2003). Building better homes: government strategies for promoting innovation in housing. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation. Shapiro, S. M. (2002). 24/7 innovation: a blueprint for surviving and thriving in an age of change. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional. Schwartz, D. G. (2006). Encyclopedia of knowledge management. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Inc (IGI).

Values Scenario 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Values Scenario 4 - Essay Example However, for a true Christian, this should not be the case. The bible should be used like a map to guide people in their way. I try to show how bible principles can be applied for a successful business. I am going to emphasize on twelve principles that that can help a Christian run his business successfully. I will start with diligence. According to the book of proverbs 22:29 the bible says that a man diligent in his business can even stand before kings. In Hebrew, the word diligent can mean fast, quick, skillful or ready. Therefore, when a customer pops in, the business person should be more than ready to serve him or her. Such service cannot be always possible. However, one should try hard to achieve this. in the new testament, Paul wrote to the Christians telling them to not to be slothful in business but instead, business men should be fervent in their work. Laziness should not be tolerated in business (Brott). The other principle is right planning. Proverbs chapter 16 verse 3 says that all a man’s work should be committed to the lord. A new business should work out the general business parameters in terms of site, size and stocks. Committing our works to the lord should help establish thoughts. The third principle is our way of thinking. The word thought should be used to give a description of the inner voices of self-awareness. Having clear and logical thoughts can make our lives easier. The bible says that the strategies of the diligent result in plenty but for the hasty, poverty might be knocking on the door. The meaning of this is that if we do fill our heads with good information we will surely prosper. Wise input contributes to wise output. For instance, in times of recession, many businesses might close since the owners could be inflexible to change. Recessions always result in an opportunity to take up the available directions (Tsague). The other principle is morality. If a business

Critical Analysis of published research paper Essay

Critical Analysis of published research paper - Essay Example MEs, indeed, comprise one of the negative issues overwhelming the medical world today. It is not new anymore but is still uncontrollably happening—which had urged and is continually urging many to uncover some facts that surround it through research. Such researches have heralded attention not only from the people engaged in the provision of care but also from its recipients and from the rest of the world to see whether proposed actions by the researchers can be efficiently applied and make used of. The research paper done by Bohomol, Ramos, and D’Innocenzo (2009) entitled â€Å"Medication errors in an intensive care unit† is one of those researches focused in the subject of medication errors in a specialized unit—the intensive care unit (ICU). In this paper, their research will be subjected to fair evaluation to enable analysis of its applicability and practicability to the medical field and work. Specifically, the paper will assess the research’s effectiveness based on its research design, data collection, validity, reliability, data analysis, certain ethical considerations and other important matters that will give rise to its importance or worthlessness. With due respect to the researchers’ capability to conduct thorough research process, this paper will also try review the research’s outcome competency in relation to the goals that the researchers have formulated. As reported by Creswell (2003), the purpose statement of a research â€Å"establishes the direction for the research† (p. 87). Hence, it is from the purpose statement that researchers formulate key points that must be considered throughout the study. Bohomol et al. (2009) clearly iterated their research rationale by simply stating that the research was done to investigate the â€Å"incidence types and causes of medication errors and the consequences for patients† (p. 1259). It was straightforward and direct to the point; it

SYM Company Profile Essay Example for Free

SYM Company Profile Essay MITSUKOSHI MOTORS PHILS., INC. (MMPI) was established in 1998. Prior to the entry of MMPI in the motorcycle industry, the market was dominated by Japanese brands. It was Mitsukoshi MMPI who pioneered the introduction of Chinese Taiwanese motorcycles in the Philippine market. In November of 1999, Mitsukoshi began its business ties with Sanyang Industry Co. Ltd. of Taiwan (SYM). SYM isa household motorcycle brand in Taiwan where it grewits popularity through its Jet model. In November 1999, MMPI began its business ties with one of Taiwan’s leading motorcycle brands, Sanyang Industry Co (SYM). MMPI successfully penetrated the Philippine market through the popularity of SYM’s JET and Shark scooter models. As MMPI’s market share continues to expand, MMPI made business ties with the Chongqing LIFAN Industry Group Ltd of China in 2000 in order to meet growing demand. This successful venture further enabled MMPI to serve the growing Philippine market demand with a wider product offering. In 2000; to meet the growing demand of motorcycles in the market, Mitsukoshi tied-up with Chongqing LIFAN Industry group Ltd. of China. This venture allowed MMPI to provide a wider product offering to the Philippine market. MMPI created EUROMOTOR in June 2006 in order to establish a Philippine motorcycle brand. Popular brands such as Euro DaanHari 150 and Euro GTX 150 gained a warm reception from the local market. In June of 2006, in order to establish a Philippine brand motorcycle, Mitsukoshi creates EURO MOTOR whereits units are supplied by Lifan and Meido manufacturing companies of China. Motorcycles units such as Euro DaanHari 150 and Euro GTX 150 gained a warm reception from the local market. MMPI is enthusiastic of the tremendous potential of motorcycles and scooters in the Philippine market. MMPI manages more than 400 exclusive Retail Outlets and Showrooms nationwide. As MMPI’s market grows, it is determined to provide for the transportation needs of the Filipinos while providing them with affordable and quality motorcycles in the years to come.

Romeo And Juliet- Emotions :: essays research papers

Images of Emotions in "Romeo and Juliet" One of William Shakespeare's most famous plays is "Romeo and Juliet." I believe the reason for this is its sense of reality and idealism. This paper will present images of human emotions in "Romeo and Juliet," which make this tragedy so believable. Youth and family play a big role in this tragic story. "Shakespeare delineates the hold of the patriarchal family on its children" (Kahn 18). This statement is true both then and now. Parents and elders will always have a hold on the children, but only to a certain extent. The two "noble" families of the play feel control and protection over both Juliet and Romeo; yet in the end, the only effect they have on the two lovers is that they have pushed them to the drastic measure of self-slaughter. Others say that the relation between the two time periods is in the children's disobeying of and misunderstanding of rules set before them. The youth of society tend to question and then possibly disregard the rules that are important to their parents if they do not have a good reason to believe in these rules. The rebellious actions of youth can eventually cause their own untimely destruction. (Justin K.) Although some feel that way, others say that idea is incorrect because teenagers who have been either purposely forcefully kept out of society tend to fear society rather than their own families (Bradbrook 99). I agree with Kahn, parents do have a certain magnitude of authority over the youth of society, but it will only have a limited effect. Just as the aged people of today eventually gained or were allowed their ability to make their own decisions and others, so must the younger generation be able to do. This opportunity was one never given to Romeo or Juliet they were left in a position of the second type of connection, where their only option was to go against the rules and concepts set before them. Two of the many other emotions used in this piece are prejudice and hate. They are intertwined and effect each other in ways so noticeable to us that we tend to forget that they even exist at times. "From examining 'Romeo and Juliet,' it is evident that the play shows how prejudice leads to escalating violence" (Justin K.). This, to most people, is common knowledge especially in society today, where many actions are based on racism or sexism.

The Implications of the Phrase: “Existence Precedes Essence.”

Kung Tzu or Confucius as he is better known as was born in 551 BC and was a Chinese thinker and teacher (as he preferred to see himself) developed a system of philosophy and religion known as Confucianism. One part of his thoughts in particular are currently of interest to us; his views on human nature. Confucius believed that human nature is neither good nor evil, but develops through out one’s life.The actions, choices and thoughts of every person all contribute towards a person’s nature; and as a result of this thought he justified that there is no collective human nature and that human nature varies from person to person. This may be summed up into one phrase: â€Å"existence precedes essence†. The statement in this case would mean that people are born without any nature as such, and are neither good nor evil to begin with; quite simply they’re like a hollow husk with no character, soul or substance (mental and emotional) that would make them human.The character develops and grows as a person experiences live and all the challenges and rewards that accompany life and is reflected through the actions and decisions of each person. This would imply that every individual is born with a ‘clean sate’ and are thus free to determine the direction of their existence weather for good or evil as a culmination of their lives thus far. It also means that all human beings are born equal (at least on a moral plain) because every individual at birth has no essence or soul; quite simply, they may be compared to animals.It is their lives and experiences that shape who they are in essence and their actions and choices that reflect who they are. Further more as a result of the equality implications is could be deduced that all people regardless of their economic or social class are equally capable of committing good and evil and no individual is incapable of committing either good or evil regardless of their social or economic class.

Constitutional Law and European Integration

There are few cases that rival Factortame in being concurrently substantively clear and decisive, and perplexing as to its full impact. The scope of the change to the UK constitution that has been instigated by it and other European Court of Justice decisions has been conceptualised as ranging from a ‘legal evolution’ to ‘revolution’. Although some theories are more convincing than others, each faces its own weaknesses.However, notwithstanding the conclusion of this particular speculative debate, the processes of European integration has undoubtedly quickened the pace at which UK Parliament and courts as part of a globalised world have had to squarely confront these constitutional changes, especially the departure from Parliament’s stronghold over the constitution. A Diceyan view of the UK constitution is no longer compatible with the current relationship between UK and EU law.It was decided in Factortame and confirmed in Equal Opportunities Commissio n, that the implications of the European Communities Act 1972 s. 2(4) is that EU law has supremacy in the case of clashes between EU and national laws. Within the orthodox view that Parliament is absolutely sovereign, inconsistencies between Acts of Parliament are to be dealt with by applying the doctrine of explicit or implied repeal to give effect to the later Act which is simply another illustration of how no Parliament can bind its successors.It would never have been open to national courts to declare provisions within primary statute incompatible with EC law either temporarily or permanently as it is today. However, so long as UK remains a part of the EU, EU law will prevail when inconsistencies arise and any derogation from this position will have to be done expressly and unequivocally. Therefore, even if the current position of Parliamentary sovereignty cannot clearly be defined, Factortame and EOC alone emphasise the unworkability of a Diceyan view of Parliamentary sovereign ty in an European context.A radical but yet convincing argument that conceptualises the constitutional implications suggests that, EU law is able to place a substantive limit on Parliament’s law making authority on overlapping areas because being a member state has partially changed the rule of recognition of Parliamentary sovereignty. Although this necessitates presupposing Parliamentary sovereignty is a legal principle, not a purely political one, it seems justified because instead of accepting Parliament to be sovereign merely by its existence, it allows for a justification based on normative rguments. This is important considering that the UK is a modern democracy and intrinsically different to the state it was in when the doctrine of Parliamentary sovereignty was originally developed. Being a legal phenomenon, the scope of Parliamentary sovereignty evolves through the judgments of the court which provides a more balanced and legitimate decision than considering just a po litical aspect because the political realities are still considered but are weighted against other principles such as the rule of obedience to statutes.Furthermore, courts are gradually developing the idea that the authority of Parliament to make law is something that is subject to, and therefore controllable by constitutional law. For example, in the domestic case of Anisminic, the scope of Parliament’s authority to confer on public authorities powers which are not subject to judicial review was sharply limited. Thus, the effect of ECJ decisions on the constitution has been to develop it to a stage where Parliament is no longer sovereign at times when, and only when, inconsistencies between EU and national law occur within a field where both laws operate.On the other hand, Sir William Wade would argue that ‘constitutional revolution’ rather than a mere evolution has resulted. However, this argument is not only at odds with Lord Bridge’s judgement but lack s plausibility in itself. He explains that the courts have acted unconstitutionally and shifted their allegiance because Parliamentary sovereignty being a ‘rule of recognition’and a solely political norm, is a constitutional fixture which may only be ‘diminished’ as a matter of practical politics.There is a real difficulty in accepting this because it would suggest judicial whim may reverse a commitment that was reached democratic consensus among all branches of government and wider society through public referendum. This formidable weakness of Sir William Wade’s argument supports viewing Parliamentary sovereignty as, at least partly, a legal concept. Although the theory that it is possible for the EU to place substantive limits to Parliamentary sovereignty accommodates the ‘voluntary’ contractual argument and ‘functional requirement of EU’ arguments that Lord Bridge presents, it is not without limitations either.It fits wel l with Lord Bridge’s alternative reasonings because they suggest that Parliament does have the power to limit its own powers and that the present conflict should be tackled on principled bases. This is important because legal phenomenon arise out of case law and albeit sparse, his judgment was the only one to address the topic. However, the persuasiveness of this argument is reduced by the fact that it simply leads us to another equally difficult question of what legal means set the width of its powers.The judges themselves seem to be in disagreement amongst each other about this as Lord Hope says ‘measures enacted by Parliament’ itself whereas Laws LJ says the unwritten constitution as interpreted by the judges which seems legitimate but in practical terms, leaves everything just as uncertain. So far only the implications of ECJ case law has been discussed but there are other elements to European integration such as the doctrine of direct effect and the European Union Act 2011 which have affected the development of the UK constitution.These developments suggest that the â€Å"new view† is the most plausible representation of Parliamentary sovereignty today because referendum locks and the possibility for individuals to present a case in national courts on law derived from sources other than Parliament present limitations on Parliamentary sovereignty but not in the substantive sense discussed above. Proponents of the â€Å"new view† view that ultimate sovereignty remains with Parliament but it may have to conform to certain manner and form limitations.The appealing factor of this model is that it also accommodates for the limitations that Human Rights Act proposes on Parliamentary legal authority as well. Yet it is problematic in that the EU has explicitly stated in s2 of the ECA that on at least an EU level, Union law is regarded as supreme and this theory fails to encompass this dimension of the relationship between domestic and EU law. Most importantly, it accentuates how the increasingly multi-layered nature of the constitution must be taken into account in the broader debate.The holding of a point of absolute power faces pressure from outside as well as inside the nation. When the broader question of whether we should be edging away from political and towards a more legal constitution is considered in light of the multi-tiered constitutionalism arising from the Parliamentary Acts of 1911 & 1949, Human Rights Act, Devolution as well as EU membership, it would seem that to maintain a wholly political view of Parliamentary sovereignty in any context would be to deny reality.However, anything more exact requires us to assess what balance between adaptability and elasticity from maintaining a political constitution, and protected rights and principles from a legal constitution will provide the checks and balances necessary in dealing with the legal and political challenges of today. Due to declining publ ic reputation of Parliament and diminishing respect for political process generally, as well as the aim of Parliamentary sovereignty having originally been to secure the broadest possible basis for ensuring democracy and legitimacy, we may not have to be so uneasy about adopting a more legal constitution.The UK constitution must embrace the emphasis it has always placed on a dynamic experience and once again, like with the case of devolution, make a smooth transition before political repercussions manifest themselves. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. R v Secretary of State for Transport ex parte Factortame Ltd [1990] ECR I-2433 [ 2 ]. Paul Craig, ‘Britain in the European Union’ in The Changing Constitution (7th ed, 2011) pg120 [ 3 ]. HWR Wade, ‘Sovereignty- Revolution or Evolution? ’ [1996] 112 LQR 568 [ 4 ].R v Secretary of State for Employment ex parte Equal Opp ortunities Commission [1995] 1 AC 1 [ 5 ]. HWR Wade, ‘The Basis of Legal Sovereignty’ [1955] CLJ 174 [ 6 ]. Paul Craig, pg121 [ 7 ]. 17th century –Glorious Revolution, Bill of Rights [ 8 ]. TRS Allan, ‘Parliamentary Sovereignty: Law, Politics, and Revolution’ [1997] 113 LQR 447 [ 9 ]. Mark Elliott and Robert Thomas, ‘Public Law’ (2011, Oxford) pg334 [ 10 ]. Anisminic v Foreign Compensation Commission [1969] 2 AC 147 [ 11 ]. Wade, ‘Sovereignty- Revolution or Evolution? ’ [ 12 ]. HLA Hart, ‘The Concept of Law’ (1996, Claredon Press) [ 13 ].Wade, ‘Sovereignty- Revolution or Evolution? ’ [ 14 ]. UK European Communities membership referendum 1975 [ 15 ]. Lord Bridge in Factortame [ 16 ]. Paul Craig ‘Britain in the European Union’ in Jowell and Oliver (eds) TheChanging Constitution (7th edn, Oxford, 2007) pg 121 [ 17 ]. Jackson v Attorney-General [2005] UKHL 56 [ 18 ]. Thoburn v Sunderland Ci ty Council [2002] EWHC 195 [ 19 ]. Sir I. Jennings, The Law and the Constitution (1959) ch. 4 [ 20 ]. Jonathan Sumption ‘Judicial and Political Decision-making: The Uncertain Boundary’ [2011] Judicial Review 301

Guilt and Shame Essay Example

Guilt and Shame Essay Example Guilt and Shame Essay Guilt and Shame Essay Essay Topic: African Religions and Philosophy Anna Karenina The society of traditional  Japan  was long held to be a good example of one in which shame is the primary agent of  social control. The first book to cogently[citation needed]  explain the workings of the Japanese society for the Western reader was  The Chrysanthemum and the Sword. This book was produced under less than ideal circumstances since it was written during the early years of  World War II  in an attempt to understand the people who had become such a powerful enemy of the West. Under the conditions of war it was, of course, impossible to do  field research  in Japan. Nevertheless, depending on the study of members of that culture who were  available for interview and study in the West, namely war prisoners at detention centers, as well as literary and other such records pertaining to cultural features,  Ruth Benedict  drew what some regard[who? ]  as a clear picture of the basic workings of Japanese society. Her study has been challenged and is not relied upon by anthropologists of Japan today. Contemporary  Western society  uses shame as one modality of control, but its primary dependence rests on  guilt, and, when that does not work, on the  criminal justice  system. : Paul Hiebert  characterizes the shame society as follows: Shame is a reaction to other peoples criticism, an acute personal chagrin at our failure to live up to our obligations and the expectations others have of us. In true shame oriented cultures, every person has a place and a duty in the society. One maintains self-respect, not by choosing what is good rather than what is evil, but by choosing what is expected of one. Personal desires are sunk in the collective expectation. Those who fail will often turn their aggression against themselves instead of using violence against others. By punishing themselves they maintain their self-respect before others, for shame cannot be relieved, as guilt can be, by  confession  and atonement. Shame is removed and honor restored only when a person does what the society expects of him or her in the situation, including committing suicide if necessary. (Hiebert 1985, 212) guilt society  is one in which the primary method of  social control  is the inculcation of feelings of  guilt  for behaviors that the society defines as undesirable. It involves an implicit judgment on the being (rather than just the behavior) of the individual: You are an  evil  person if you would do such-and-so. It also involves creating the  expectation  of punishment now (when the behavior fails to be kept secret) and/or in the hereafter. One of the interesting features of many such societies is that they inculcate feelings of guilt for feelings and/or impulses that the individual cannot help but feel. Where a  shame societymight tell its members that sexual interactions are to be hidden from general view or knowledge, a guilt society may tell people that they are guilty or sinful for mere  sexual desire. A prominent feature of guilt societies is the provision of sanctioned releases from guilt for certain behaviors either before the fact, as when one condemns sexuality but permits it conditionally in the context of marriage, or after the fact. There is a clear opportunity in such cases for authority figures to derive power, monetary and/or other advantages, etc. by manipulating the conditions of guilt and the forgiveness of guilt. Paul Hiebert characterizes the guilt society as follows: Guilt is a feeling that arises when we violate the absolute standards of  morality  within us, when we violate our conscience. A person may suffer from guilt although no one else knows of his or her misdeed; this feeling of guilt is relieved by confessing the misdeed and making restitution. True guilt cultures rely on an internalized conviction of sin as the enforcer of good behavior, not, as shame cultures do, on external sanctions. Guilt cultures emphasize punishment and forgiveness as ways of restoring the moral order; shame cultures stress self-denial and humility as ways of restoring the social order. (Hiebert 1985, 213) GUILT, SHAME,  and embarrassment are forms of social control. Whether these are cast in evolutionary, psychological, or cultural terms, we should not lose sight of that basic function. These emotions may not always be portrayed in these terms, but that is how they have evolved and become embedded in our cultural beliefs and practices. It is in this context that we should raise the question: Are there shame cultures as opposed to guilt cultures, with corresponding differences in how people within them experience guilt and shame? In American culture (and Western cultures enerally), personal identity is conceived of as being independent and autonomous. Society is seen as a collection of self-contained individuals who are held responsible for their own behavior. Ones interests are best served by allowing maximum freedom and responsibility in choosing ones objectives. Moral precepts are based on conceptions of justice. Even when these are tempered by interpersonal obligations, the focus remains on individuals who must balance their responsibilities between the self and significant others. THE PRIMARY  moral obligation is to avoid harming significant others. It is when you cause harm, or are unjust, that you feel guilty. Being responsive to the needs of others is desirable, but is not a moral duty. Individuals are free to follow their inclinations within the limits of the law and in consideration of the rights of others. Their obligations to others are defined in negative terms- what they should not do- rather than as positive duties of what they should do. Whereas the failure to uphold justice is a vice, the failure to be beneficent to others is only a lack of moral virtue. By contrast, in Asian contexts, ones identity is defined in relation to the group one belongs to, typically the family. Whereas in the West, a person would be known as Jane or John Doe, in the East, they would be identified as members of the Doe family. In her study of Indian Hindus, psychologist Joan Miller found that the primary basis of determining moral conduct was not justice but a persons duties to significant others. Among Americans, moral duty is imposed on the individual to constrain that individuals actions. For Hindus, doing ones duty meant both meeting ones obligations as well as realizing ones own nature. Therefore acting benevolently toward others was not an aim secondary to considerations of justice, nor was it a matter of acting above and beyond the call of duty- fulfilling ones social duty was the primary purpose of moral conduct. These differences lead to contrasting ways of determining what is moral. For instance, if there is no other way to help a friend in need, it would be ethical for an Indian to steal but unethical for an American to do so even if it means failing to help the friend. These differences are not absolute; nonetheless, twice as many Indians as Americans would give priority to interpersonal considerations over abstract ethical principles. Moreover, Indians were more prone than Americans to make contextual exceptions (where the morality of an action depends on the nature of the relationship and the circumstances of the case), whereas Americans took a more absolute view about an action being right or wrong, irrespective of other considerations. The moral objective in the West, as noted above, is to avoid doing wrong and is more objective; in the East, it is to do what is right and is more subjective. Similar considerations apply in other Asian cultures. In China, the family is the great self. One starts by literally owing ones life to ones parents. Ones primary obligation in life is to serve and protect social ties, not pursue personal goals. Similarly, while Americans place a high premium on self-reliance, the Japanese favor interdependence and harmonious integration within the group. Individuals in both groups are highly competitive, but in different ways. Americans want to  get ahead  of others; the Japanese are concerned with not falling behind; instead of pushing ahead, they line up sideways. The personal boundaries of Americans have been compared to the hard shell of an egg; those of the Japanese, to an eggs soft internal membrane. Erich Lessing/Art Resource This individualistic-versus-interdependent basis of moral judgment helps clarify the problematic distinctions between shame and guilt cultures. Instead of these designations explaining differences in such a way that makes one culture seem morally superior to another, they explain cultural differences as the outcome of serving different needs. In the Western context of individualism, guilt, with its emphasis on autonomy, provides a better moral foundation for guiding individuals who are responsible for themselves. With a lesser sense of responsibility for others, there is less need for shame as a form of social control. By contrast, in the Asian cultural context, where maintaining harmony in relationships is most valued, shame is a more effective means of moral control. Since personal boundaries extend beyond the individual, it becomes more difficult to generate guilt. When someone does wrong, it is not only the person but everyone related to that person who shares in the guilt. Therefore, shame in Asian cultures fulfills some of the same functions of social control that guilt does in the West and vice versa. These considerations are important to our understanding of differences in the ways guilt and shame are perceived in Western and Eastern religion. . . . For instance, the centrality of shame in Confucianism has led to the general impression that Confucian China is a shame society, and hence is ethically less developed. [Religion scholar] Mark Berkson [MA 92, PhD 00] has raised cogent arguments that this characterization is not valid. Confucian ethics, far from being ethically less well developed, offers much to others to learn from. While generally framed in East/West terms, these differences between guilt and shame can also be seen within Western culture itself in historical perspective. Homeric heroes in ancient Greece were driven by the twin virtues honor and fame. In their warlike society such virtues were best manifested on the battlefield. The self-esteem of heroes like Achilles, Odysseus, and Oedipus depended on their standing in the eyes of their peers, with whom they were in fierce competition and often conflict. Failure led to loss of face and shame. Consequently, shame has been generally assumed to be the predominant moral sentiment that motivated and restrained the ancient Greeks. Their shame culture was based on public esteem. What mattered was where one stood with respect to ones peers, who constituted an honor-group. This view has been challenged by moral philosopher Bernard Williams, who argues that Greek conceptions of shame also included elements of guilt. The moral objective in the West is to avoid doing wrong; in the East, to do what is right. These cultural differences are embedded in various languages as well. This makes translating terms like guilt and shame a common source of confusion. For example, when we look for synonyms for shame and guilt in Chinese, we do not find single terms that correspond to them. Rather, we find a number of terms that correspond to various types of shame, making distinctions that do not exist in English. In some contexts, even guilt may appear as a subsidiary form of shame. Even if the terms to designate them vary, are these emotions universal or culture specific? Do an American and an Indian experience guilt and shame the same way, whatever they call them? There are no simple answers to this question. Some emotions appear to be more universal than others; for instance, it is hard to imagine a culture that does not recognize expressions of fear or anger. However, when it comes to complex emotions like guilt and shame, which are more subject to cultural variation, the picture becomes less clear. Even the fact that a culture has no word for an emotion does not mean that the emotion it represents is absent. Linguists point out that even if certain emotions are universal, their terminology is not. For instance, there is no word for disgust in Polish. And in one Australian aboriginal language, fear and shame are expressed by the same word (associated with the impulse to retreat). The common error is to start with ones own language and look for exact translations in other languages. Ultimately, it is not through specific terms like guilt or shame but throughmetalanguage- descriptions of the essential elements in emotional states- that we can test the universality of the emotions. For instance, the answer to How do you feel when you have lost someone dear to you? would convey the idea of sadness better than would the answer to the question Do you feel sad? How does the evolutionary view help us in  dealing with guilt? This is not a matter explicitly addressed by evolutionary psychologists. . . . Nonetheless, the evolutionary basis of the capacity for altruism and the capacity to feel guilty provides us with a natural foundation for guilt, and hence the need for its acceptance and usefulness. If guilt is indeed part of our nature, and there are good reasons for it, it makes no sense to fight it or deny it. Accepting guilt as a fact of life therefore makes it easier to approach it in a positive manner, and perhaps helps us to resolve it in more authentic and adaptive ways. HERANT KATCHADOURIAN,  who came to Stanford in 1966, is an emeritus professor of psychiatry and human biology and former president of the Flora Family Foundation. He has received the Dinkelspiel and Lyman awards and has been selected seven times as Outstanding Professor and Class Day speaker. HONOR AND SHAME  IN A MIDDLE EASTERN SETTING| Roland Muller Copyright 2000 All rights reserved. Sociologists have recognized that three social issues have existed since earliest times. As civilizations formed, each of them grappled with the concept of fear, shame and guilt. These are, in essence the building blocks of society. Every society has its particular ways of dealing with these issues. And each of these issues have different importance, depending on the cultural makeup of that society. These three aspects make up the basic building blocks of worldview. It is similar to the three basic colors that an artist mixes to make all the colors of the universe. On my computer, I can mix the three primary colors to make up 64 million other colors. Thats the way it is with worldview. There are many different kinds of worldview, but when carefully examined they can be better understood when looking at them in the light of mans response to guilt, shame and fear. Sociologists have used terms like guilt-based cultures, and shame-based cultures for years now. We must be careful, however, not to try and fit each culture or worldview into one specific category such as fear based or shame based. As I stated, these building blocks are similar to an artist, creating thousands of colors from three basic primary colors. How much of each primary color is used, determines what the final color will be when the paint is mixed. In the same way, all three building blocks are present in all cultures and worldviews, but how much of each one is present, determines the actual type of culture that emerges. Having determined this, one must also consider how people in a particular local culture react to the elements of the overall culture. As an example, when an Arab is shamed, he may react by taking revenge on the one who causes the shame, but when an oriental is shamed, he may react by committing suicide. So while individual cultures may react to sin in different way, in general terms there are great blocks of the world that have similar worldviews. Where are the major blocks? Many western nations (Northern Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand) have cultures that contain mostly guilt-based cultural characteristics. On the other hand, much of the Middle East and Asia is made up shame-based cultures. Most of the primal religions and cultures of the world (such as tribes in the jungles of Africa, Asia, and South America) are structured around fear-based principles. The problem comes when we want to simply classify cultures into these three basic classifications. They do not easily fit, because they are made up of blends of all three. Thus, when analyzing a culture, one must look for the primary cultural characteristics, and then the secondary ones. As an example, many North American Native cultures are made up of elements of both shame-based and fear-based cultures. On the other hand, much of North American culture has been made up almost exclusively of guilt-based principles, although this has changed in the last two decades. As cultures and worldviews developed over the millennia, they have gravitated towards one of these groups. This polarization has created three mega-trends in worldview. While the majority of worldviews fits into these three classifications, many cultures draw equally from two or all three worldviews. This mixing of worldviews is especially noticeable in South America where jungle tribes with fear-based cultures come in contact with shame-based cultures originating out of southern Spain, and guilt-based cultures brought by western religion and western business. The goal of this paper is to simply introduce the idea of guilt, shame and fear based cultures, and then to examine how the Nabataean culture fit into this picture. Along the way I will use illustrations drawn from many cultures of the world, including modern Muslim culture. Guilt-Based Culture None of us lives in exactly the same culture. Culture varies from town to town, family to family and sometimes even from individual to individual. All of us are different. We are made up of different fabrics and formed by the different experiences that come into our lives on a day to day basis. Even those who try to define American or Canadian culture can only talk in vague generalizations. Americans come from all kinds of ethnic backgrounds, and have all kinds of values. Some live in middle class housing, some in cardboard boxes on the street, and some in large impressive mansions. Its hard to place categorizations and descriptions on people who are so diverse. Despite this, however, there are some general characteristics or mega-traits that fit the majority of people in the western world. Certain basic fundamental beliefs have molded western civilization. These beliefs have laid the foundations upon which these nations are built, and from which the fabric of their society has been formed. One of these basic foundations is their belief in right versus wrong. This understanding is so deeply ingrained in western culture, that westerners analyze almost everything from this perspective. Most western forms of entertainment are built upon the good guys and the bad guys. It is so familiar to westerners that few of them question its validity. It is such an integral part of religion and society, that they often cannot imagine a world where right versus wrong isnt the accepted basic underlying principle. Right versus wrong is the yardstick used in their culture to measure everything else with. They talk about the rightness and wrongness of someone elses actions. They talk about things being right for me. They are obsessed with knowing their rights and exercising them. Many western societies spend countless hours and billions of dollars debating the wrongs of society. Is homosexuality right or wrong? Is spending billions on the military right or wrong? Is possession of drugs right or wrong? How about possession of nuclear bombs, or weapons of mass destruction? Almost every major issue the west struggles with involves an aspect of deciding whether something is right or wrong. They arrive at this basic tension in life because almost everything in western culture is plotted on a guilt/innocence line. (Innocence being something defined as being right or righteousness). Guilt - Innocence The pulls and demands of these two diametrically opposed forces dictate much of western human behavior. Guilt can plague and haunt people bringing fear and condemnation upon them. Many westerners do everything they can to avoid being guilty. Psychologists spend a great deal of their time helping people deal with all sorts of guilt complexes. Evangelical Christians in particular, often live in circles that are governed by guilt principles based on the authority of the Bible. Outside of these circles, guilt is defined in many other ways. It can be a sense of public disapproval, being in trouble with the authorities, or not being politically correct. However guilt is defined, and to what extent it influences a culture varies widely from location to location. However, the understanding of right and wrong has been instrumental in forming much of western society. On the other end of the spectrum, is righteousness, or innocence. This is the unspoken goal of much of western society. Im OK, youre OK is the most comfortable situation for many. Many westerners express their innocence with the statement that they are as good as the next person. If this is true, then they can get about their business of pursuing happiness and pleasure within the bounds of being OK and not guilty. Most westerners do what they can to avoid being guilty and at the same time exercise their rights. This guilt/innocence thinking is so ingrained in western society that most westerners have immediate reflexes to events that catch them off guard. Being a westerner, I have often noticed some of the reflexes that we have developed. Have you ever noticed what happens in the swimming pool when the lifeguard blows his whistle? Almost all westerners will stop to see who is guilty, and when they realize they are innocent will resume swimming. This is a normal scenario from the western world, but it is not true in much of the eastern world. When we in the western world do something wrong, like unintentionally running a red light, we may feel guilty. This is also not necessarily true in the eastern world. Or, how about this scenario? Imagine a classroom full of grade school kids. Suddenly, the intercom interrupts their class. Johnny is being called to the principles office. What is the immediate reaction of the other children? In the west the immediate reaction would almost always be: What did you do wrong? Even western children almost always immediately assume guilt. Perhaps the school principal was going to hand out rewards, but much of western society conditions people to expect the worst, and they feel pangs of guilt. So much of western thinking is wrapped up in guilt. Wars are justified on the basis of establishing guilt. During the opening days of the Gulf War, the American government spent many hours and millions of dollars determining if Saddam Hussein was guilty. Once they thought they had established that he was guilty of committing atrocities they had the right to take military action against him. Throughout the war, they continued to make statements about Mr. Husseins deranged mental state and irrational actions. All of this helped justify the war. In fact, all during the history of western civilizations, wars have had to be justified, and each side identifies the other as being the bad guys. But some things are not easy to chart between right and wrong. Is a hungry child stealing food guilty? Should he be punished despite his hunger? These questions disturb us, because we feel that everything in life must fit somewhere between guilt and innocence. In fact, western association with guilt has gone so far as to provide an avenue for people to develop guilt complexes. They feel guilt for what they have done and also guilt for what they have not done. They even feel guilt for what others have done. People who struggle with a guilt complex can even be overcome with embarrassment and feelings of guilt from the actions of others. The flip side of guilt is innocence, righteousness, and exercising rights. As I mentioned, Im OK, youre OK is an important philosophy in western culture. In order not to point a finger at people, western society continues to expand the limits of what is acceptable activity. By making homosexuality acceptable, they help thousands of people avoid feeling guilty. This alone is enough to convince many people in western society that its OK for people to be homosexual. In fact, almost anything is tolerated as long as it doesnt hurt another person. I have been surprised to discover that many people in our western world believe that our fixation with right and wrong is not only normal, but also the only correct way to think. They assume that anyone, who does not think in these terms, does not think rationally or logically. In order to understand guilt-based culture, we must go back to Greek and Roman times, and examine the origin of this pattern of thinking, and discover how this has had an impact on society and religion. The Roman Connection The Roman Empire has come and gone, leaving us with a few ruined cities, and a wealth of stories about conquest and heroism. While most of what the Romans accomplished has disappeared, there is one facet of Roman life that has impacted the west, right down to the present. It is the Roman law, or the pax romana (Roman peace) which was brought about by everyone obeying the Roman law. Roman law introduced the concept that the law was above everyone, even the lawmakers. This idea was not totally new. The Jews under Moses understood this. Greek politicians developed a similar plan with their city-state, but with laws that were man made, not divine. The Romans, however, perfected the system, and put it into widespread use. They developed a type of democracy known as the republic. They put in place a complex legal system that required lawmakers, lawyers, and judges. This Roman system of law left a tremendous impact on western society. Even to this day, much of the western legal system is still built around the basic Roman code of law. Western civilization today is littered with references to the Roman Empire. Much of their coins, architecture, and language have Roman roots. Legal and economic theories are so filled with Romanisms that westerners no longer see them for what they are. They have become so much a part of their mental furniture, that few people today question them. As an example, Roman law during the Roman Empire assumed that the individuals rights were granted by the state (by government) and that lawmakers can make up laws. Under Roman law, the state was supreme, and rights were granted or erased whenever lawmakers decided. This philosophy is sometimes called statism. Its basic premise is that there is no law higher than the governments law. Roman politicians were not the first to invent statism but hey did such an effective job of applying it, that the Roman Empire has become the guiding star for politicians in the west. Statists see the pax romana, the period in which Rome dominated the Mediterranean world, as the golden days of statism. The known world was unified and controlled by one large government. This unification was symbolized in Roman times by something known as the  fasces. This was a bundle of wooden rods bound together by red-colo red bands. In ancient Rome the fasces was fixed to a wooden pole, with an ax at the top or side. This symbolized the unification of the people under a single government. The ax suggested what would happen to anyone who didnt obey the government. The Roman fasces became the origin of the word fascism. During Roman times, pax romana (the Roman peace) meant, do as you are told, dont make waves, or you will be hauled away in chains. Roman Law was supreme. In contrast to this, there was the old way of obeying the supreme ruler. Under this system, the word of the ruler was law. With the Republic, the Romans elevated law, so that it was above the ruler. Now everyone, even the emperor of Rome had to obey the law. The law, not the ruler determined if people were innocent or guilty. It is interesting to note, that as the early Christian church developed and grew, Roman law also had an impact on Christian theology. Since Roman law interpreted everything in the terms of right versus wrong, early Christians were deeply influenced by this thinking. Early Church Theologians Tertullian,  the early church father who first developed a code of systematic theology, was a lawyer steeped in Roman law. Using his understanding of law, and the need for justice, guilt, and redemption, he laid the basis for Christian systematic theology, as it would develop in the west. Tertullian was born shortly before 160 AD, into the home of a Roman centurion on duty in Carthage. He was trained in both Greek and Latin, and was very much at home in the classics. He became a proficient Roman lawyer and taught public speaking and practiced law in Rome, where he was converted to Christianity. In the years that followed he became the outstanding apologist of the Western church and the first known author of Christian systematic theology. Basil the Great  was born in 329 AD, and after completing his education in Athens he went on to practice law and teach rhetoric. In 370 AD, Basil, the awyer, became Basil the Bishop when he was elected bishop of Caesarea. During his time as Bishop he wrote many books in defense of the deity of Christ and of the Holy Spirit. Basils training in law and rhetoric gave him the tools he needed to speak out in defense of the church. Next came  Augustine  who was born in 354 AD into the home of a Roman official in the North African town of Tagaste. He received his early education in the local school, where he learned Latin to the accompaniment of many beatings. He hated studying the Greek language so much that he never learned to use it proficiently. He was sent to school in nearby Madaura and from there went to Carthage to study rhetoric, a technique used in Roman law for debate. He then taught legal rhetoric in his hometown and Carthage until he went to Milan in 384 AD. He was converted in 386 and became a priest in 391. He returned to Africa and became a prolific writer and bishop. No other Christian after Paul has had such a wide and deep impact on the Christian world through his writings as Augustine. Ambrose  was born around 340 AD, in Gaul. When his father, the prefect of Gaul, died, the family moved to Rome where Ambrose was educated for the legal profession. Later, he was appointed civil governor over a large territory, being headquartered in Milan. Upon the death of the bishop of Milan in 374, the people unanimously wanted him to take that position. Believing this to be the call of God, he gave up his high political position, distributed his money to the poor, and became a bishop. In 374, Ambrose demonstrated his ability in the fields of church administration, preaching, and theology. But as always, his training in Roman law enforced his views of guilt and righteousness. Have you noticed the impact that law and lawyers had on the development of the early church? This trend did not stop with the early church. Reformation Theologians John Calvin  was born in 1505 in northeastern France where his father was a respected citizen. He studied Humanistic Studies at the University of Paris, and then law at the University of Orleans, and finally at the University of Bourges. Sometime between 1532 and 1533 he converted and adopted the ideas of the reformation. The writings of John Calvin, the lawyer and theologian, have had a tremendous impact on our society. Calvin was not alone. Arnauld Antoine the French  theologian (1612-1694), studied at Calvi and Lisieux, first law, then theology. He was made a priest and doctor in 1634. Arnauld spoke out against the Jesuits and his writings added to the impact of the reformation. There are more examples of theologians who were also lawyers, such as  Martin Luther, but this list will suffice to point out that legal thought and expression had much to do with the development of the theology of the Early Church and the Reformation. Each of these church leaders continued to develop the relationship between Christianity, as it was known in the west, and the legal understanding of guilt, justice, and righteousness. These lawyers were concerned with establishing guilt, or innocence, and they brought this emphasis with them, into their theology. And so the western church that developed used this theology to build their civilizations. In the ensuing years, new nations in the New World would be founded on the theological basis developed by these church leaders. The United States of America was founded on these principles. The American founders attempted to establish a nation built on the Roman principle of a republic, and on the early churchs understanding of right and wrong. Today, it is interesting to notice that there are many non-western sources who link guilt-based culture with Christianity. In October 1999, Isaiah Kalinowski, the Opinion Editor for the Jordan Times, wrote an article entitled The Shame Culture that is Wabash. In this article he pointed out: guilt culture is due largely to Christianity. A shame culture is one in which individuals are kept from transgressing the social order by fear of public disgrace. On the other hand, in a guilt culture, ones own moral attitudes and fear of retribution in the distant future are what enforce the ethical behavior of a member of that society. From Kalinowskis perspective, guilt-based culture is linked to Christian theology. This is an unfortunate misrepresentation, as the Bible was written in a shame-based setting and speaks to all cultures and worldviews. On the other hand, Christians, must recognize the incredible impact that guilt-based culture has had on their history and understanding and interp retation of the Bible. The Eastern Scene Christianity in the east, however, developed differently. Eastern theologians did not use Roman law as a vehicle for interpreting the gospel. Rather, the eastern world was caught up in the shame-honor relationship that was prevalent in societies scattered from the Middle East to the Far East. Eastern Orthodox theology didnt deal directly with sin, guilt, and redemption. Chrysostom,  the early church theologian for the Eastern Church, was born about 345 AD into a wealthy aristocratic family in Antioch. He was a student of the sophist Libanius who had been a friend of the Emperor Julian. This man gave him a good training in the Greek classics and rhetoric that laid the foundation for his excellent speaking ability. After his baptism in 368, he became a monk in the eastern churches. Chrysostom rose to being an outstanding preacher, even winning the acclaim of the emperor. Today we have a record of around 680 of Chrystostoms sermons and homilies and I am told that he never once preached on justification. In the end, he was banished because he spoke out so sharply against the views of the western theologians. In the same way,  Islam,  which rose to prominence around 600 AD, teaches that God remains over all, and that law is in his hands, not the hands of lawmakers. The Quran enforces the principle that God is overall with the story about Pharaoh and how he was shown Allahs mightiest miracle, but he denied it and rebelled.   The Pharaoh quickly went away and summoning all his men, made to them a proclamation. I am your supreme Lord.   The Quran then tells us that Allah Smote him, and goes on to warn, Surely in this there is a lesson for the God fearing. Therefore it would be unthinkable to a Muslim, that a lawmaker could make a law that is over all. This is why Islam presents both a religious and a cultural pattern for people to live by. God dictates both moral laws and civil laws. Western Historians Roman law and thinking has also impacted the way we westerner look at history. The danger comes, when we westerners take our Roman understanding of civilization and culture and apply it to those who do not have a Roman-based culture. We fruitlessly spend untold hours and incalculable amounts of energy explaining to what motivates people and shapes society, when in truth, we dont understand the real principles of the other culture. The answer to this dilemma is quite simple. We westerners must put our Roman, guilt-based understanding of culture and history aside, and strive to understand other worldviews and their thinking. Then we need to return to our history books and discover what is happening in a society that is not pre-occupied with right and wrong, or guilt and innocence. Fear-Based Cultures As we drew near to the jungle village, the sound of drums could be heard. Drawing closer, we could see people dancing and withering on the ground. A man approached us and explained that they could not go further. The village was doing a sacred rite to improve the economy and bring more trade to the area. We were escorted away and not given a chance to introduce why we had come to their village. Later we heard that a human sacrifice had been offered to the spirits that day. In another situation we arrived in a village when a rain-making ceremony was about to begin. They were invited to watch. A black bull was led to the edge of the village where it faced the direction from where the rain would come. The animals throat was cut and it fell over on its left side, to the delight of all. This indicated that the sacrifice was acceptable. The men then cut up the meat and cooked it. As the meat was cooking, an old man began to shout out a prayer to the spirits for rain. Soon everyone joined in. After the meat was eaten, the shouting turned into dancing. The villagers danced all afternoon until the rain came. It rained so heavily that everyone had to run for shelter. Did the rituals bring the rain? To the natives it was obvious and there was no way that we rational westerners convince them otherwise. As these two stories illustrate, there are many people in the world today whose lives revolve around their interaction with the spiritual world. They believe that gods and spirits exist in the universe and they must live in peace with these unseen powers, either by living quietly, or by appeasing these powers. Based on their worldview, these cultures and peoples view the universe as a place filled with gods, demons, spirits, ghosts, and ancestors. Man needs to live at peace with the powers around him, and often man lives in fear. This fear is based on a number of different things. First, man fears man. Tribal wars are endemic, with captives becoming slaves or, sometimes, a meal for cannibals. Whenever tribes encounter people from outside of their own group, they approached them with suspicion and fear. Secondly, these people fear the supernatural. All around them events are taking place that can only be explained by the supernatural. Much like the ancient civilizations, they have developed spiritual explanations for how things work in this world. If crops fail, then specific gods or demons are responsible. If sickness comes, then other gods or demons are responsible. If a tribe fails in battle, it is because of the activity of a god or demon. Sickness is often viewed as a god reaping revenge. Everything in life, even romance, is somehow attributed to the activities of gods or demons. The struggle that these people face is simply one of needing power. Using their voodoo, charms, and other methods, they seek to gain control over other people and over the controlling powers of the universe. The paradigm that these people live in is one of fear versus power. At the end of the 19th century, E. B. Tylor attempted to understand the difference in thinking between Europeans and other peoples living in Africa and South America. In his writings he coined the word animism from the Latin word  anima  for soul. He saw the animistic worldview as interpreting everything from a spiritual philosophy rather than a materialistic philosophy. Many sociologists of Tylors era saw mankind moving from an ancient worldview based on the supernatural to a modern worldview based on science and reality. Dave Burnett states in his book  Unearthly Powers,  that H. W. Turner later advocated the use of the term primal religion, meaning that these religions both anteceded the great historic religions and continue to reveal many of the basic or primary features of religion. Almost everywhere you find animists or primal religions you find people living under the influence of a fear-based culture. Burnett goes on to state, Power can be understood in many ways: physical, political, economic, social, and religious. The secular worldview tends to regard all power as originating from within the material world. In contrast, primal worldviews see such powers not only as being real within the empirical world but as having their primary origin outside the visible world. In this way, those whose lives operate in the fear/power paradigm see themselves living in a physical world that co-exists and is influenced by unseen powers. These powers may be present in people or animals or even in inanimate objects like trees or hills. In some cultures, powers may be perceived in personal terms such as we would use for living beings. These powers are often regarded as having their own particular character, feeling, and ability to relate to others, and often, even have a will of their own. Like people, they may be angered, placated, or turned to in time of need. Power is an important concept in fear-based cultures. In the Pacific Islands it is often called mana, while the Iroquois of North America call it orenda, which particularly refers to the mystic power derived from a chant. The Eskimos have the notion of sila, a force watching and controlling everything. The Chinese have the concept of fung shui, or the powers within the earth and sea. In folk Islam the term baraka  (blessing or holiness) sometimes embraces many of these concepts. In most fear/power cultures, the main way of dealing with a power is to establish rules to protect the unwary from harm and procedures to appease those powers that are offended. These rules and procedures are generally referred to as taboo. Taboos come in the form of things like special people, forbidden or unclean foods, sacred objects, special acts or rituals, and special names. Appeasements are usually made in the form of sacrifice or dedication to the invisible powers. These powers can take various forms, such as: ghosts, demons, ancestors who live around people, spirits in trees and rocks, and totems (clans associated with certain animals or inanimate objects. ) In order to deal with these powers, rituals are established which people believe will affect the powers around them. Rituals are performed on certain calendar dates, and at certain times in someones life (rites of passage), or in a time of crisis. In order to appease the powers of the universe, systems of appeasement are worked out. They vary from place to place. Some civilizations offer incense while some offer their children as sacrifices to gods. However it is done, a system of appeasement, based on fear is the norm for their worldview. Wherever this system of appeasement comes into being, religious persons come to the forefront to control these systems. In some cases they are known as priests. In other cases they are known as witch doctors, or shamans. Whatever their title, their role is the same. They are the ones who hold power. Often they are the only ones who understand the needs of the gods or demons, and they are the ones through whom the demons or gods communicate. In every fear-based culture, the pattern is much the same. The witch doctor, priest, or shaman controls people through the use of fear. They are very effective in their roles, and as a result, whole cultures and people groups are held in their iron grip. Early Religion As archeologists and historians have dug through the sands of time, they have uncovered temples and signs of religious activity that reflect strong fear-based elements in early civilizations. Along with this, the structure of civilizations where rulers held absolute power reflects a fear-power base for their civilization. Kings, pharaohs, and rulers held supreme authority and wielded power through the fear that they instilled in the members of their civilization. This allowed civilizations like the Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians and others to conquer wide areas of their world. While we can deduce the fear-power aspect in these civilizations from ancient buildings and military records, it is much harder to detect the importance of shame and honor. Shame-Based Cultures Our taxi screeched to a halt. Lying in the middle of the street was a teen-age girl, dying. She had been shot in the head four times. Just then her brother walked across the street with two policemen and stated, There she is. I killed her because she was in an immoral situation with a man. Under the laws of the country, the young man was innocent. He had not committed murder but had preserved the honor of his family. In another case, a girl ran away from home. Later her family learned she had married someone from another religion. They were furious. The police imprisoned the girl so that she would be protected from her family. Elderly grandmothers taunted the brother and father. How long do we need to keep our heads to the ground in shame? Wont you do something to cleanse the shame from our tribe so we can raise our heads and live in honor once again? The family finally agreed to pay the police a $50,000. 00 guarantee that they would not hurt her and she was released into their custody. Within hours her father and brother shot her thirteen times. The entire family was pleased that honor had been restored. The guilt/innocence perspective in which westerners live dictates much of our thinking in the west. However, not everyone in the world operates within this paradigm. As I mentioned earlier, while living in the Middle East I noticed that when the lifeguard at a swimming pool blew his whistle, the westerners all stopped to see who was guilty, but the Arabs kept right on swimming. As I observed this and other phenomena, I began to realize that Arabs and Arab society were operating in another whole dimension. Guilt did not have the same power and influence as it did in the west. While they were aware of guilt, it didnt have the same strong connotations for them as it had for me. If a policeman pulled me over, I immediately felt guilty, thinking that perhaps I had done something wrong. But when my Arab friends were pulled over, they didnt display any sign of guilt. They talked boldly to the policeman, and even argued loudly with him over the issues at hand. It was only after many years of living in a Muslim culture that it started to dawn on me that the Arabs around me were not operating on a level of guilt versus innocence. Nor were they operating in a fear versus power paradigm. I had heard much about this from missionaries living in Africa but it didnt seem to apply to the Arabs of the Levant. Rather, I discovered that Arabs were living in a worldview where the predominant paradigm was shame versus honor. Once I clued in to this, I began to explore this concept and tried to verify it on all social levels. I was amazed to discover what I found. When I would visit my friends, I would try to act correctly and they would try to act honorably, not shamefully. I was busy trying to learn the rights and wrongs of their culture, but somehow my framework of right versus wrong didnt fit what was actually happening. The secret wasnt to act rightly or wrongly in their culture. It wasnt that there was a right way and a wrong way of doing things. The underlying principle was that there was an honorable and dishonorable way of doing things. Every part of the Muslim culture I lived in was based on honor and shame. When I visited my friends I could honor them in the way I acted. They could honor me, in the way they acted. Three cups of coffee bestowed honor on me. The first, called salam (peace) was followed by sadaqa (friendship), and the third cup of coffee was called issayf (the sword). The meaning was clear in their culture. When I arrived I was offered a cup of coffee that represented peace between us. As we drank and talked, the cup of friendship was offered. The last cup, the sword, illustrated their willingness to protect me and stand by me. It didnt matter if I was right or wrong, they were bound by their honor to protect me. Everywhere I moved in the Middle Eastern culture there were things that pointed to honor or shame. What chair I chose to sit in, who entered the door first, the way I expressed myself in Arabic, the very way I walked and held myself, all communicated to others around me my place in the world. The cultures of the Middle East are filled with thousands of tiny nuances that communicate messages about shame and honor. Shame is a popular topic today in western society. Shame, however is closely identified with a lack of self-esteem. Shame often stems from some form of abuse where children fail to learn trust. This is quite different from the shame societies of the east where shame and fear of shame are used as controlling forces in peoples lives. (As compared with right and wrong being used as a controlling factor. As western parents, we teach our children to act rightly. If they dont, we teach them that feelings of guilt are the proper response. In a shame-based culture however, children are taught to act honorably, and if they dont, feelings of shame are the proper response. But it goes farther than just feelings. Shame and honor are positions in society, just as being right (and justified) is a position in our western culture. In the west, young people are free to act as spo ntaneously as they want, as long as they are within the framework of right and wrong. They can be loud, boisterous, and happy, as long as they dont break things, or abuse others. Our rule in the west is As long as I dont hurt someone else or their property, Im generally ok. Young people in a Muslim setting are different. Wherever they go, they represent their families and tribes. Young people are not free to act as they want. They must always act honorably, so that the honor of their family and tribe is upheld. If they act shamefully, then the family or tribe will react against them. Shameful deeds are covered up. If they cant be covered up, they are revenged. It is the unwritten rule of the desert. The whole concept of shameful deeds can be traced back to the early Bedouin code of practice, which existed even before Islam arrived. This code, still much in existence today, affects not only the way individuals act, but also the actions of entire nations. As I have visited with people from other eastern countries, I have continued to explore the concept of honor and shame among these other countries. It has helped me understand and communicate with people from places such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, China, Japan, and Korea. In fact, I have discovered that the concept of shame and honor makes a great discussion topic. I have often asked people from shame-based cultures what are honorable or shameful acts or actions in their cultures. The discussion that follows is often highly stimulating, and usually reflects or contrasts similar attitudes right across the shame- based countries of the world. In some cases however, there are distinct differences between cultures. As I mentioned earlier, if someone is badly shamed in an Arab culture and the shame cannot be hidden, then it is revenged, and the person responsible for the shaming is killed. In many eastern cultures, if a shame cannot be hidden, the way out is suicide. Even here, however, there are many similarities, as I have known of a number of students in Jordan committing suicide because of their poor school marks, just as happens in Japan. In order for shame-based cultures to work, shame and honor are usually attached to something greater than the individual. Honor is almost always placed on a group. This can be the immediate family, the extended tribe, or in some cases, as large as an entire nation; as was demonstrated in Japan just previous to World War Two. In most Middle Eastern cultures, honor is wrapped up with ones tribe. Everyone grows up within a tribal concept. If someone is from the Beni Hassan tribe, he thinks and acts, and dresses as a Beni Hassan. His actions reflect on the honor the Beni Hassan tribe. If he acts honorably, the Beni Hassan tribe is honored. If he acts shamefully, the whole tribe is shamed. If the act is vile enough, the Beni Hassan tribe will react, and execute the offender, even though he is a member of their own tribe, and perhaps even their immediate family. Thus the honor of the tribe is restored. Many years ago an Arab soldiers gun accidentally discharged and killed his friend and companion in the army. After serving seven years, he was released on condition that he leave Jordan. He lived for nearly twenty years in the United States, but decided to return one day to see his family. When it was learned that he had returned, several young people, some of whom had not been born at the time of the killing, surrounded the house where he was and riddled his body with bullets. Their honor was restored, and shame removed. If someone shames another tribe, tribal warfare could result, and often only the skilful intervention of a third party ends the strife. Arab lore is full of stories of how wise and skillful men have intervened in difficult situations. In fact, many national rulers gain their fame and reputation from their skills at ending tribal strife. In the Middle East two methods are recognized. First, a skillful ruler, through diplomatic efforts and displays of great wisdom, can end disputes. Solomons dealings with the two mothers who claimed the same baby displayed the kind of wisdom that Arabs appreciate and desire in their rulers. The second kind of ruler crushes all of the tribes and by force makes them submit to himself. Peace may then rule, but once the controlling power is removed, old animosities return. This is well illustrated in the Balkans conflict where the domination of communism brought about a measure of peace. Once freedom returned however, old conflicts and animosities flared again. The storytellers who frequent the coffeehouses of the Middle East excel in telling stories of both kinds of rulers and heroes, especially heroes who can effectively deal with shame and restore honor. This is very different from the entertainment styles of the west, where the hero determines who is guilty, and punishes him, and right and goodness reign again. This is because in our worldview, we try to hang onto the concept that in the midst of a crooked and perverse world, right still reigns and has the upper hand. Those from a shame-based culture, on the other hand, cling to the idea of maintaining honor, in the midst of a shameful and alienated world. For many western people it is very hard if not impossible to try and comprehend a culture that is based on shame, not right versus wrong. In most western cultures, telling the truth is right and telling lies is wrong. In the Middle East, people dont think of lies as being right or wrong. The question is, Is what is being said, honorable? If a lie protects the honor of a tribe or nation, then it is fine. If a lie is told for purely selfish reasons, then it is shameful. Thus, in the west we debate ethics, by trying to determine if things are right or wrong. In the east, they debate ethics, by trying to determine if things are honorable or not. Shame in Western Culture In the past, shame has played a role in western culture. One has only to read Tolstoys  Anna Karenina, or any of Shakespeares works to see the role that shame used to play. Shakespeare uses the word shame nine times as often as he does guilt. In time, however, our culture has changed and guilt has become much more important. Then, during the last twenty years, we have begun to move away from such a strong guilt-bases for our culture. Why is this? I suspect that the popularity of Freuds teachings is one reason. Sociologists generally credit Freudian psychology for the removal of guilt from western culture. Since his teachings have become popular in many universities, the concept of guilt has become unpopular and guilt has been assigned to others, such as our parents. Other factors, like the lack of responsibility within modern politics have influence young people today. Nixon and Watergate, and Clinton and Lewinsky have illustrated to people today that right versus wrong is not the only way to think. During the period of 1960 to 2000 western civilization has begun a slow but steady shift away from the right versus wrong paradigm. Today young people are very reluctant to label anything as right or wrong. Instead, things are assigned the label as cool or not cool. In the eyes of many high school students, being cool is equivalent to being honorable. Being not cool is the equivalent of shame. I believe that this slow shift in worldview is responsible for many of the differences between boosters, boomers, busters, and Generation Xrs. Shaming in History Early Roman culture started out in the fear/power paradigm. Events of nature and history were interpreted within this paradigm. The worship of a pantheon of gods carried on during their whole civilization until Christianity became the state religion. When the Romans adopted the Greek pattern of placing the law above the emperor, they began to interpret events in their society on the guilt/innocence paradigm. This soon came to the forefront of their civilization, and fear/power was pushed to the back. When the Romans conquered shame-based civilizations the people they conquered had a profound impact on their own culture. Shame was always present in Roman culture, but it slowly came more and more to the forefront and eventually into Mediterranean culture today. In republican Rome, criminals had the doors to their houses burned as a public sign that a criminal was living there. Those who had been wronged could legally follow the criminal around, chanting and accusing him in public places. The concept of public shaming carried on into the Middle Ages, and even into Victorian England where criminals were put into stocks. These stocks were located in public places, so that the criminal would be known and shamed before all. Pillories were rife during the Victorian age, when those who were pilloried had to endure the shame of publicly having rotten vegetables thrown at them. Branding criminals was practiced in England until the eighteenth century. Brands were often placed on the hands or face, so that the criminals would be publicly shamed wherever they went. The major difference between east and west, however, is not the presence of the shame concept, but rather, the structure of society around either the group mentality or individualism. Eastern shame became much more powerful than western shaming activities, simply because in the east the shame rests on the persons group rather than the individual. Since many eastern society functions in a group setting, the whole group suffers rather than just the individual. If the crime is bad enough, the group itself may oust or, for a severe offense, kill the offender. In 1999 at least twenty-five women were killed to maintain the honor of their families in the country of Jordan. Hundreds of others were killed in countries like Egypt, Sudan, Syria, and Iran. In many countries where shame-based culture is predominant, the names of criminals and those being ousted from their families for shameful activities are publicly printed in the newspapers. In western countries we tend to isolate criminals from their surroundings, and then determine if they are guilty. Criminals are then locked away out of sight, rather than publicly shamed in stocks in the public square. Its interesting to notice that in the Crow Indian culture in North America, mocking of some one elses inappropriate behavior effects shaming. This is sometimes called buying-of-the-ways. If you imitate someone elses inappropriate behavior, you are buying his ways. In some cases a person actually offers money to buy someone elses inappropriate behavior. This is the ultimate shame. In many shame-based cultures, rather than encourage others, people criticize and question others. This is seen as positive, as it keeps them from becoming too proud. In the same way, Arabs are often quick to criticize leaders, especially elected ones, if they perceive that they are too ambitious or proud. They are sometimes publicly questioned or shamed, and often they leave public life. Even new language students discover that their neighbors are quick to point out that someone else speaks better than they do, or they are asked why they speak so poorly after being there for a whole four months! The criticism is often meant to keep them from being proud of how well they have done. Arabs understand that the criticism may be a compliment, but the poor westerner is often crushed. Clash of World Views As I mentioned earlier, there are three basic planes on which worldview, function. On each of these planes, there